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TORMEY  AND  LAWRY'S  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY 

VIVIAN'S   EVERYDAY  CHEMISTRY 
MOORE  AND  HALLIGAN'S  PLANT  PRODUCTION 

EDITED  BY 
KIRK  LESTER   HATCH,  B.S. 

PROFESSOR    OF   AGRICULTURAL   EDUCATION 
THE   UNIVERSITY   OF    vVISCONSIN,    MADISON 


A  contented  herd  of  dair}-  cows  in  a  well-shaded  pasture. 


fjiMS^.^*''PW^''^' 


Ample  range  of  good  pasture  should  be  given  brood  buwo  auJ  Uitu  litters  of  young  pigs. 


ANIMAL   HUSBANDRY 


BY 

JOHN   L.  TORMEY,   B.S.A. 

ASSISTANT   PROFESSOR    OF   ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY 
THE    UNIVERSITY    OF   WISCONSIN,    MADISON 

AND 

ROLLA  C   LA  WRY,   B.S.A. 


AMERICAN   BOOK   COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CINCINNATI  CHICAGO 

BOSTON  ATLANTA 


COPTRKiHT,    1920,    BY 

AMERICAN   BOOK   COMPANY 

ALL    RIGHTS    KESEKVED 


TOBMEY    AND    LAWKY    ANIMAL    UljiBANUBT 
E  P     1 


LIBRARY 

/V,  c^  i^tate  College 

GENERAL   INTRODUCTION 

Tms  series  of  agricultural  texts  is  based  on  the  theory  that 
the  successful  farmer  should  know  the  physical  and  biological 
forces  with  which  he  has  to  contend  ;  that  he  should  understand 
the  laws  under  which  these  forces  operate ;  and  that  he  should 
acquire  some  skill  in  directing  them.  He  should  ultimately 
become  able  to  adjust  and  correlate  these  forces  so  as  to  bring 
them  all  under  the  orderly  operation  of  economic  law.  In  con- 
formity with  the  above  theory  this  series  has  been  made  to  cover 
the  following  fundamental  divisions : 

The  science  and  art  of  producing  agricultural  plants. 

The  production,  care,  and  management  of  farm  animals. 

The  establishment  and  conservation  of  soil  fertility,  with  the 
chemistry  of  the  same  in  relation  to  plant  and  animal  production. 

The  proper  balance  and  combination  of  these  three  aspects 
of  agricultural  production,  in  the  business  management  of  the 
farm. 

What  Vocational  Agriculture  Demands.  —  Vocational  train- 
ing in  agriculture  should  differ  from  trade  instruction  in 
one  most  important  regard :  trade  training  develops  skilled 
workers  for  the  various  branches  of  an  industry ;  it  neither 
develops,  nor  aims  to  develop,  factory  managers.  It  usually 
deals  with  parts  of  the  construction,  less  frequently  with  the 
finished  product,  and  more  rarely  still  with  the  management 
of  the  manufacturing  plant.  Vocational  agriculture,  on  the 
other  hand,  must  train  for  the  operation  of  the  whole  plant,  as 
the  farm  is  a  unit  in  itself.  The  trained  farmer  must  be  skilled, 
not  only  in  the  arts  of  his  varied  industry,  but  also  in  the  scien- 

104;23 


6  GENERAL  INTRODUCTION 

tific  management  of  the  entire  farm.     Added  to  skill  there  must 
be  knowledge  and  understanding. 

What  the  Federal  Law  Requires.  —  Under  the  Smith-Hughes 
law  passed  by  Congress  early  in  191 7,  vocational  instruction 
in  agriculture  —  to  quote  its  language  —  "  must  provide  for 
directed  or  supervised  practice  in  agriculture  either  in  a  farm 
pro\dded  by  the  school  or  other  farms  for  at  least  six  months 
per  year."  There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  meaning  or  the 
intent  of  this  law.  It  demands  that  agricultural  instruction 
shall  be  useful,  practical,  and  of  immediate  application. 

What  This  Text  is  Designed  to  Accomplish.  —  The  authors 
of  this  book  have  long  held  the  opinion  that  is  expressed  in 
the  Smith-Hughes  law  and  made  a  condition  of  its  fulfilment. 
They  have  therefore  made  radical  departures  from  the  usual 
style  of  textbook  construction.  In  addition  to  the  informa- 
tional material,  emphasis  is  placed  on  frequent  sets  of  Exercises 
intended  to  provoke  class  discussion  and  to  direct  attention 
to  the  established  practices  on  the  home  farm.  Following 
these  exercises  are  lists  of  Home  Projects  designed  to  suggest 
how  the  lessons  gained  from  study  of  the  text  may  be  turned  at 
once  to  practical  account. 

It  is  believed  that  by  following  the  plan  set  forth  in  this 
volume  teachers  of  vocational  agriculture  may  fulfil  the  most 
vigorous  demands  of  the  Smith-Hughes  law.  It  is  hoped  that 
students  may  also  find  herein  something  of  inspiration,  as  well 
as  of  immediate  practical  use. 

KIRK  LESTER  HATCH. 


PREFACE 

Animal  Husbandry  includes  both  the  art  of  breeding, 
feeding,  and  caring  for  live  stock,  and  the  fundamental 
laws  of  science  upon  which  these  practices  are  based.  The 
abihty  of  a  stockman  to  raise  and  care  for  animals  in  a 
proper  manner  rests  ultimately  upon  his  knowledge  of 
breeds,  feeds,  and  housing  conditions. 

The  feeder  well  knows  that  the  ever  changing  price  of 
feeds  has  made  his  occupation  one  that  requires  both  skill 
and  scientific  knowledge.  He  must  raise  suitable  feeds 
that  form  a  good  crop  rotation  and  which  at  the  same  time 
combine  to  make  the  most  efhcient  ration  for  his  purposes. 
Besides,  he  must  purchase  the  by-products  of  milling  estab- 
lishments, slaughterhouses,  and  oil  factories,  whose  nutri- 
tive value  must  be  known  if  an  intelligent  selection  is  to 
be  made. 

The  dairyman  is  continually  being  confronted  with  new 
problems.  He  must  select  his  breeding  animals  with  the 
greatest  care.  He  must  guard  jealously  the  health  of  his 
herd,  and  he  must  conform  to  restrictions  and  requirements 
placed  upon  him  by  the  state  and  by  the  manufacturers 
of  his  raw  product. 

The  successful  stockinan  must  understand  live  stock 
history  and  the  rules  governing  the  conduct  of  the  various 
breed  associations  in  order  to  select  his  breeding  stock  in- 
telligently. He  must  know  the  reasons  for  the  sanitary 
precautions   necessary   to   protect   his   animals   from   the 


8  PREFACE 

ravages  of  infectious  diseases,  and  the  scientific  basis  for 
the  restriction  placed  upon  the  importation  of  live  stock. 

The  prominence  which  poultry  breeding  has  attained  as 
a  specialty,  added  to  the  widespread  importance  of  raising 
fowls  in  both  country  and  town,  demands  the  space  given 
to  this  section  of  the  book.  No  aspect  of  animal  husbandry 
requires  more  study  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  breed- 
ing,  feeding,   and  marketing  than  does  that  of  poultry. 

All  these  essential  elements  of  successful  live  stock  farm- 
ing make  the  study  of  animal  husbandry  one  of  especial 
interest  not  only  to  those  who  actually  engage  in  farming 
but  also  to  those  who  must  depend  upon  agriculture  for 
sustenance. 

This  volume  has  been  prepared  with  the  hope  that  its 
pages  will,  in  some  measure,  meet  the  needs  of  students 
of  animal  husbandry  and  create  a  deeper  interest  in  the 
live  stock  industry. 


CONTENTS 


I. 

The  Composition  of  the  Animal  Body 

. 

II. 

Feeding  Stuffs  and  Their  Preparation 

III. 

Classes  of  Feeding  Stuffs    .... 

IV. 

By-Product  Feeding  Stuffs   . 

V. 

How  the  Animal  Uses  Its  Feed    . 

VI. 

Breeds  of  Horses    .... 

VII. 

Breeds  of  Cattle    .... 

VIII. 

Breeds  of  Sheep  and  Goats  . 

IX. 

Breeds  of  Swine      .... 

X. 

Judging  Cattle        .... 

XL 

Judging  Swine  and  Sheep 

XII. 

Judging  Horses        .... 

XIII. 

Care  and  Management  of  Horses 

^IV. 

Care  and  Management  of  Beef  Cattle 

XV. 

Care  and  Management  of  Dairy  Cattle 

XVI. 

Care  and  Management  of  Sheep  . 

XVII. 

Care  and  Management  of  Swine  . 

XVIII. 

General  Live  Stock   Improvement 

XIX. 

Farm  Poultry 

XX. 

Incubation  and  Brooding 

XXI. 

Feeding,  Care,  ant)  Management  of  Laying  Hens 

XXII. 

Types  and   Breeds  of  Chickens      .        .        .        . 

XXIII. 

Turkeys,   Ducks,  and  Geese  ... 

Appendix    

Index 

do) 

A  woods-pasture  furnishing  shade  and  protection  from  the  weather  is  enjoyed  by 
sheep,  especially  if  water  is  plentiful. 


ANIMAL    HUSBANDRY 

CHAPTER   I 
THE   COMPOSITION   OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY 

In  feeding  animals,  the  feeder  may  consider  himself  a 
builder  who  uses  feeds  as  materials  with  which  to  build 
the  animal  body.  But  the  animal  itself  should  be  regarded 
as  something  more  than  a  building.  It  may  also  be  con- 
sidered as  a  machine  which,  while  being  operated  and 
kept  in  running  order,  creates  heat,  performs  work,  repairs 
broken-down  material,  builds  new  material,  and  grows  and 
reproduces  itself. 

The  plant  and  the  animal  bodies  are  built  up  from 
various  substances  which  perform  distinct  functions  and 
make  up  different  parts  of  the  organisms.  The  chemist 
has  found  about  13  chemical  elements  essential  to  plants. 
They  are  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  sodium, 
silicon,  and  chlorine.  These  elements  combine  to  form  the 
following  substances  in  both  plant  and  animal  life : 

1.  Proteins,  4.    Mineral  substances, 

2.  Carbohydrates,  5.   Water. 

3.  Fats, 

Proteins.  —  These  substances  contain  carbon,  hydrogen, 
oxygen,   nitrogen,   and   usually   sulphur   and  phosphorus. 


COMPOSITION   OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY 


Fig.   I.  —  Soy  beans  are  high  in  protein. 


Proteins  form  the  most  important  part  of  feeding  stuffs. 
As  a  rule  the  highest  priced  feeds  are  the  richest  in  protein. 

Protein  substances  are  found  near  the  growing  tips  of 
plants  and  usually  constitute  a  higher  percentage  of  young 
than  of  old  plants.  They  are  also  found  stored  in  seeds 
around  the  embryo.  In  animals,  they  are  even  more 
abundant  than  in  plants,  forming  the  cell  walls,  lean-meat 
tissues,  brain  and  nerve  cells,  hair,  hoof,  horn,  nails,  and 
structural  material  for  all  the  working  organs  of  the  body. 

Protein  materials  usually  contain  i6  per  cent  nitrogen. 
In  analyzing  feeding  stuflfs  for  protein  content,  therefore,  the 
chemist  determines  the  percentage  of  nitrogen  and  multi- 


CARBOHYDRATES  13 

plies  this  by  6.25;  that  is,  100  per  cent  divided  by  6.25. 
Feeds  high  in  protein  make  up  a  number  of  the  best  com- 
mercial by-product  feeds,  such  as  wheat  bran,  middlings, 
linseed  meal,  and  cottonseed  meal.  Farm-grown  crops 
which  are  high  in  protein  are  alfalfa,  clover,  peas,  beans, 
and  peanuts.  Since  protein  is  essential  for  the  building  of 
living  tissues,  it  is  necessary  in  the  feed  of  young  growing 
animals  and  milk-producing  females.  It  is  also  necessary 
in  smaller  amounts  in  the  feeds  of  all  other  classes  of  ani- 
mals, for  from  it  broken-down  tissue  is  rebuilt. 

Carbohydrates.  —  These  are  defined  as  substances  made 
up  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen  with  the  hydrogen 
and  oxygen  in  the  same  proportions  as  they  are  found  in 
the  composition  of  water,  i.e.,  two  parts  by  volume  of 
hydrogen  to  one  of  oxygen. 

Included  under  the  head  of  carbohydrates  are  starches, 
sugars,  and  cellulose.  Cellulose  forms  the  cell  walls  of 
plants  and  gives  shape  and  stiffness  to  the  stems,  leaves, 
and  seeds.  Starch  is  stored  in  the  seeds  of  plants  like  corn 
and  wheat,  and  in  roots  and  tubers  like  the  potato.  It 
serves  as  reserve  material  upon  which  the  plant  draws  in 
time  of  need.  Sugar  is  stored  in  roots  as  in  the  sugar 
beet,  and  in  stems  as  in  sugar  cane. 

The  cellulose  material  is  coarse  and  woody  and  makes  up 
what  the  chemist  calls  ''crude  fiber."  It  is  practically 
indigestible. 

Starch  and  sugar  form  the  valuable  sources  of  carbo- 
hydrate feeding  material.  In  the  animal  body,  the  carbo- 
hydrates consist  largely  of  glycogen  or  animal  starch  and 
glucose,  which  are  the  forms  in  which  this  material  is  stored 
to  be  doled  out  to  the  animal,  furnishing  the  heat  and  the 
energy  necessary  for  doing  work.     When  there  is  an  excess 


14 


COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY 


of  this  carbohydrate  material,  it  is  changed  into  fats  and  as 
such  is  deposited  on  the  body  of  the  animal. 

Feeds  high  in  carbohydrate  material  are  the  cereal 
grains :  corn,  oats,  rye,  barley,  rice,  and  buckwheat,  which 
contain  large  amounts  of  starch.  Potatoes  contain  a  high 
percentage  of  starch,  sugar  beets  a  high  proportion  of  sugar, 
and  the  stems  of  grasses  a  large  amount  of  crude  fiber. 

Fats.  —  Fats  comprise  a  group  of  substances  of  varying 
composition.  They  are  made  up  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen,  with  a  relatively  high  percentage  of  carbon  in  their 
composition.  In  animals,  fats  may  be  considered  as  food 
stored  against  the  time  of  need. 

Because  of  their  high  carbon  content  fats  liberate  in  burn- 
ing about  2|  times  as  much  heat  or  energy  as  do  carbo- 
hydrate substances ;  hence  fats  are  said  to  have  2  J  times 
the  energy  value  of  carbohydrates.  The  percentage  of  fat 
in  feed  varies  from  .1  per  cent  in  sugar  beets  to  39.6  per  cent 
in  peanuts.  In  animals  it  may  vary  from  15  per  cent  in  the 
fat  calf  to  45  per  cent  or  more  in  the  body  of  the  fat  sheep. 


Fig.  2.  —  Peanuts  contain  a  high  percentage  of  fat. 


MINERAL  SUBSTANCES 


15 


Mineral  Substances.  —  These  occur  in  the  plant  in 
various  compounds  of  calcium,  phosphorus,  potassium, 
sodium,  and  magnesium.  In  animals  most  of  the  mineral 
matter  is  to  be  found  in  the  bones,  though  phosphorus,  as 
has  already  been  indicated,  is  essential  to  protein  com- 
pounds. 

Such  feeds  as  bran,  alfalfa,  clover,  and  peas  are  high  in 
mineral  matter,  and  for  that  reason  are  valuable  for  growing 
animals  which  need  the  minerals  for  bone  building.  The 
amount  of  mineral  matter  in  feeds  varies  from  .4  per 
cent  in  wheat  flour  to  64.4  per  cent  in  some  samples  of  raw 
ground  bone.  In  animals,  the  mineral  matter  varies  from 
1.65  per  cent  in  the  fat  pig  to  4.66  per  cent  in  the  half 
fat  ox. 

Water.  —  Water  is  found  in  varying  amounts  in  all  liv- 
ing things.     It  is  absolutely  essential  as  a  solvent  of  other 

FAT  PDOTET^ 


WATER. 


Fig.  3.  —  Composition  of  the  animal  body. 

food  materials ;  it  forms  the  basis  of  the  circulating  media 
in  the  body  ;  and  it  regulates  the  temperature  of  the  organ- 
ism. In  feeding  stuffs,  the  amount  of  water  varies  from 
about  6  per  cent  in  well-dried  oat  straw  to  over  90  per  cent 
in  green  clover  crops.  Growing  plants  contain  relatively 
more  water  than  do  mature  ones. 

The  bodies  of   young  animals  contain   relatively  more 
water  than  do  those  of  older  ones.     The  fatter  the  animal 


i6  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY 

the  lower  is  the  percentage  of  water,  because  fatty  tissue 
contains  less  water  than  lean  tissue.  In  the  body  of  the 
extra  fat  sheep  the  per  cent  of  water  may  run  as  low  as  35, 
while  in  the  body  of  the  store  sheep  there  is  about  57  per 
cent  of  water.  This  is  one  reason  why  the  butcher  pays 
the  best  price  for  the  fat  animal. 

Vitamines. —  Until  the  last  few  years  it  was  supposed 
that  any  feed  containing  proteins,  fats,  carbohydrates,  and 
mineral  matter  combined  in  the  proper  proportions  was  a 
perfect  feed.  It  has  been  recently  discovered,  however, 
that  there  are  two  other  substances,  called  vitamines, 
whose  chemical  nature  is  at  present  unknown,  which  are 
necessary  to  life,  growth,  and  reproduction.  One  of  these 
substances  is  found  in  milk,  unpoHshed  rice,  peanuts, 
kidney  beans,  and  some  other  products.  Since  it  is  easily 
dissolved  in  water  it  is  called  water  soluble  vitamine.  The 
other  substance,  found  in  butter  fat,  beef  fat,  cod-Hver  oil, 
margarines,  leaves  of  cabbage  and  alfalfa,  and  in  some  seeds, 
is  called  fat  soluble  vitamine.  Both  vitamines  are  present 
in  whole  milk,  cotton  seeds,  soy  beans,  kernels  of  corn,  oats 
and  wheat,  and  certain  other  plant  and  animal  products. 
Young  animals  fed  on  feeds  from  which  the  vitamines  have 
been  removed  fail  to  grow  or  even  to  Hve,  and  older  animals 
fail  to  reproduce.  The  practical  appUcation  of  this  dis- 
covery is  to  be  found  in  feeding  milk  containing  some  but- 
ter fat  to  all  young  growing  animals  and  in  curing  and  stor- 
ing hay  and  other  roughage  in  such  manner  that  their  life- 
giving  vitamines  will  not  be  washed  away  by  dew  and  rains. 

What  Becomes  of  a  Feeding  Stuff  in  the  Body  of  the 
Animal.  —  It  has  already  been  shown  that  there  is  a  close 
relationship  between  the  materials  in  the  plant  and  in  the 
animal  body.     The  food  materials  in  the  plant,  when  eaten, 


WHAT  HAPPENS  TO   FOOD  17 

undergo  various  changes  before  they  can  be  utilized  by  the 
animal.  Some  of  this  material  is  not  made  use  of  at  all  but 
passes  off  as  waste. 

What  Happens  to  the  Food.  —  Food,  taken  into  the 
mouth,  is  chewed  and  mixed  with  a  secreted  liquid  known 
as  saliva.  These  processes  are  known  as  mastication  and 
insalivation.  The  food  is  then  passed  into  a  long  tortuous 
tube  known  as  the  digestive  tract.  In  this  tract  it  is  broken 
down  into  simpler  substances  so  that  it  may  be  absorbed. 
This  breaking-down  process  is  known  as  digestion.  The 
process  of  taking  the  broken-down  and  dissolved  food 
materials  through  the  walls  of  the  digestive  tract  is  known 
as  absorption.  Transporting  the  materials  to  the  different 
parts  of  the  body  and  using  them  for  the  different  purposes 
required  is  known  as  assimilation. 

The  digestive  tract  of  all  farm  animals  consists  of  a  long 
and  a  very  crooked  tube  distended  in  certain  parts  for  the 
storage  of  food.  The  canal  is  divided  into  the  following 
parts : 

1.  The  gullet,  extending  from  the  mouth  to  the  stomach, 

2.  The  stomach, 

3.  The  small  intestine,  which  is  divided  into  the  duo- 
denum, the  jejunum,  and  the  ileum,  and  extending  from 
the  stomach  to  the  large  intestine,  and 

4.  The  large  intestine. 

In  the  case  of  the  cow  and  sheep,  which  are  called  ruminat- 
ing animals,  the  gullet  is  expanded  into  three  large  recep- 
tacles in  which  the  coarser  rough  foods  are  placed  partially 
chewed  by  the  animal.  They  remain  here  for  a  while,  and 
later  are  returned  to  the  mouth  and  rechewed.  This  process 
is  known  as  rumination.  The  horse  has  a  small  stomach, 
but  eats  large  quantities  of  hay.     In  the  case  of  the  horse, 

T.    AND    L.    ANIMAL   HUSB,  —  2 


1 8  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  BODY 

the  feed  passes  on  through  the  stomach  and  is  stored  in  a 
large  receptacle  located  between  the  small  intestine  and 
the  large  intestine  known  as  the  caecum.  In  this  organ 
a  great  deal  of  absorption  takes  place.  The  hog  con- 
sumes less  roughage  than  the  horse  or  the  cow  and  has 
no  such  provision  for  the  storing  and  softening  of  coarse 
roughage. 

Now  what  changes  take  place  in  the  feeds  as  they  pass 
through  the  digestive  tract? 

Protein.  —  The  protein  material  is  first  acted  upon  in  the 
stomach  by  pepsin,  a  ferment  of  the. gastric  juice,  secreted 
from  the  walls  of  the  stomach.  The  gastric  juice  contains 
another  ferment  known  as  rennin  which  curdles  milk  so 
that  it  cannot  pass  through  the  stomach  before  being  acted 
upon  by  the  secretions  of  the  stomach.  The  pepsin  breaks 
the  protein  material  down  into  simpler  substances  which 
are  then  passed  on  to  the  small  intestine  where  they  are 
acted  upon  by  trypsin,  an  enzyme  contained  in  the  pan- 
creatic juice  (secreted  by  the  pancreas,  a  gland  located  near 
the  stomach),  and  by  the  erepsin,  a  juice  secreted  by  the 
walls  of  the  small  intestine. 

After  having  undergone  all  this  action  the  protein  material 
is  changed  finally  into  simple  substances  called  amino  acids. 
In  this  form  it  is  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract. 

In  the  circulation  of  the  blood  these  protein  substances 
are  carried  to  different  parts  of  the  animal's  body  and  used 
to  build  up  new  tissues  such  as  muscular  fibers,  ligaments, 
nerves,  hair,  hoof,  horn,  and  skin,  and  to  repair  tissues 
broken  down  in  work.  What  is  left,  over  and  above  these 
requirements,  goes  to  furnish  heat  for  the  body  and  energy 
for  work.  Some  of  the  excess  is  used  to  furnish  protein 
for  the  milk  of  female  animals. 


CARBOHYDRATES  19 

The  greater  part  of  the  waste  from  the  broken-down 
protein  material  is  passed  off  through  the  kidneys  in  the 
urine.  Small  amounts  are  breathed  out  through  the  lungs 
and  some  passes  off  through  the  skin. 

From  the  above  it  is  evident  that  the  animal  uses  pro- 
tein for  repairing  waste  and  building  up  new  material, 
and,  when  the  protein  is  furnished  in  sufficient  amount,  to 
supply  heat  and  energy.  The  importance  of  protein  in  the 
ration  is  obvious.  No  tissue  building  and  consequently 
no  growth  can  take  place  unless  protein  food  is  furnished  in 
sufficient  quantity. 

Carbohydrates.  —  The  carbohydrates  make  up  the 
greatest  bulk  of  the  feeding  stuffs.  The  digestive  tracts  of 
farm  animals  are  arranged  to  accommodate  large  amounts 
of  these  substances. 

The  changes  in  these  food  materials  begin  in  the  mouth. 
While  the  food  is  being  chewed,  it  is  mixed  with  a  liquid 
known  as  saliva,  secreted  by  glands  in  the  mouth.  The 
function  of  the  saliva  is  to  moisten  and  soften  the  food  so 
that  it  may  be  easily  swallowed ;  and  to  change  the  in- 
soluble starch  into  a  soluble  sugar  called  maltose.  The 
action  of  the  saliva  continues  on  down  the  gullet  and  into 
the  stomach.  The  maltose  is  not  yet  in  condition  to  be 
absorbed  by  the  system,  but  must  be  changed  into  a  simpler 
carbohydrate  form  known  as  glucose. 

The  carbohydrate  materials  pass  into  the  small  intestine 
where  they  are  broken  down  into  simpler  forms  which  may 
be  absorbed  from  the  digestive  tract  and  assimilated  by  the 
animal  body. 

In  the  case  of  animals  that  live  upon  foods  containing 
large  amounts  of  crude  fiber,  or  cellulose,  special  digestive 
structures  are  found.     As  has  already  been  noted,  the  ox 


20         .     COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ANIM.\L   BODY 

and  sheep  have  four  so-called  stomachs,  although  the  hrst 
three  are  only  enormous  distentions  of  the  gullet.  These 
parts  are  called  the  rumen  or  paunch,  the  honeycomb  or 
reticulum,  the  manyplies  or  omasum,  and  the  abomasum  or 
true  stomach.     In  the  last  named,  regular  digestion  takes 

place.  In  the  first  three 
named,  especially  in  the 
paunch,  there  is  room 
for  vast  quantities  of 
rough  feed.  Here  the 
rough  feed  lies  for  a  time 
until  it  is  regurgitated, 
chewed,  swallowed  the 
second  time,  and  passed 
to  the  third  stomach 
or  manyplies.  In  the 
paunch,  there  is  gener- 

Fig.  4.  —  Stomachs  of  the  sheep.  ,       .  « 

ally  a  great  evolution  of 
gas,  due  to  bacterial  fermentation.  Under  ordinary  con- 
ditions, these  gases  are  taken  up  by  the  blood  circulation 
and  expelled  from  the  body  through  the  lungs. 

Often  when  large  amounts  of  green,  dew-laden  clover 
or  alfalfa  are  taken  into  the  paunch,  the  evolution  of  gas 
is  greater  than  the  blood  can  dispose  of  and  bloat  or  hoven 
occurs.  If  not  reUeved,  the  animal  becomes  greatly  dis- 
tressed, and  the  toxic  or  poisonous  properties  of  these  gases 
may  cause  sickness  or  death. 

Fats.  —  The  fats  are  not  so  readily  changed  by  the 
digestive  fluids  as  are  the  proteins  and  the  carbohydrates. 
As  they  pass  along  they  are  first  acted  upon  by  steapsin 
(an  enzyme  secreted  by  the  pancreas)  and  converted 
into   soaps.     Fats    themselves    are   not    soluble    and    are 


EXERCISES 


21 


changed  to  soaps  so  that  they  may  be  absorbed  from  the 
digestive  tract.  These  soaps  are  converted  back  to  fats 
after  they  have  passed  through  the  walls  of  the  intestines 
and  are  then  taken  into  the  circulation.  The  fat  that  is  not 
used  to  create  heat  or  energy  for  external  work  is  made  into 
fatty  tissue  which  serves  as  a  food  reserve. 

Mineral  Matter  and  Water.  —  Water  is  used  all  along  the 
digestive  tract  as  a  solvent.  It  is  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
body,  forming  a  necessary  part  of  all  tissues.  Without 
water  there  can  be  no  circulation  whatever. 

Mineral  matter  is  taken  up  in  solution  all  along  the 
digestive  tract,  and  is  carried  by  the  circulation  to  all  parts 
of  the  body.  Calcium  or  Hme  is  used  in  building  the  skele- 
ton. Phosphorus  is  used  in  the  skeleton  and  also  plays 
an  important  part  in  the  protoplasm  and  cells  of  the  animal. 
It  is  also  found  in  protein  compounds.  Iron  is  found  in  the 
blood  and  to  its  presence  is  due  the  power  of  the  red  corpus- 
cles to  carry  oxygen.  Magnesium  is  found  in  the  bones 
and  in  the  blood,  chlorine  is  necessary  in  protein  digestion  in 
the  stomach,  and  sodium  and  potassium  are  found  in  the 
serum  and  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Name  a  list  of  feeds  high  in  starch.  In  oil.  In  protein. 
In  sugar. 

2.  Classify  the  above  feeds  in  order  of  the  relative  amounts 
of  these  substances  which  they  contain. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  feeds  of  high  water  content  and  classify  them 
in  order. 

HOME   PROJECT 

Make  a  collection  of  all  the  feeds  used  on  the  home  farm  and 
classify  them  in  order  of  their  most  important  content. 


CHAPTER   II 
FEEDING   STUFFS   AND   THEIR   PREPARATION 

How  Feeding  Stuffs  are  Analyzed.  —  In  analyzing  feed- 
ing stuffs  the  chemist  determines  the  percentage  of  the 
following  substances :  water,  ash,  protein,  fat,  crude 
fiber,  and  nitrogen  free  extract.  All  of  these  are  capable 
of  furnishing  nourishment  to  the  animal  body,  hence  they 
are  called  nutrients. 

To  determine  the  amounts  of  water  and  ash  the  chemist 
first  takes  a  known  weight  of  the  feeding  stuff,  dries  it  at  a 


WATER  PROnm         KINE12A.L  OTHER- 

SUBSTANCE      SUBSTANCES 

Fig.  s.  —  Composition  of  feeding  stuffs. 

temperature  of  212°  F.  for  a  few  hours,  reweighs  and  repeats 
the  drying  process.  When  it  finally  comes  to  a  constant 
weight  the  difference  between  the  original  and  the  dry 
weight  is  the  amount  of  water  driven  off.  Dividing  the 
weight   of   water   by    the   weight  of  the   original   sample 


ANALYSIS  23 

gives  the  percentage  of  water.  The  dry  part  of  the  sample 
is  then  burned.  Mineral  matter  will  not  burn.  The  ash 
remaining  therefore  represents  the  amount  of  mineral 
matter. 

As  already  indicated,  the  protein  is  found  by  first  deter- 
mining the  nitrogen  and  multiplying  it  by  6.25.  Since 
about  16  per  cent  of  protein  is  nitrogen,  the  weight  of  pro- 
tein is  6.25  times  the  weight  of  nitrogen. 

Another  sample  of  the  feeding  stuff  is  next  treated  with 
dilute  acids  and  alkalies  to  remove  all  soluble  portions.  The 
insoluble  part  remaining  is  called  crude  fiber.  It  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  cellulose,  abundant  in  seed  coats,  hulls, 
husks,  and  stems  of  plants.  Crude  fiber  is  largely  in- 
digestible. Feeds  that  are  high  in  crude  fiber  and  low  in 
the  more  soluble  nutrients  are  called  roughages.  Those 
comparatively  low  in  crude  fiber  and  high  in  the  other 
nutrients  are  called  concentrates. 

Another  sample  is  treated  with  ether.  The  portion 
soluble  in  ether  is  considered  as  fat  although  the  term  ether 
extract  is  to  be  preferred,  because  ether  dissolves  waxes, 
resins,  and  gums  as  well  as  fat.  Waxes,  gums,  and  resins 
are  more  abundant  in  roughage  than  in  concentrates,  hence 
the  ether  extract  of  roughage  is  less  valuable  than  that  of 
concentrates.     Fat  is  very  valuable  as  a  nutrient. 

Sugars  and  starches  are  included  under  the  term  nitrogen 
free  extract.  The  sum  of  the  ash,  fat,  protein,  and  crude 
fiber  is  subtracted  from  the  total  dry  matter.  The  differ- 
ence is  the  nitrogen  free  extract.  The  sum  of  the  nitrogen 
free  extract  and  the  crude  fiber  makes  up  the  carbohy- 
drates of  the  feeding  stuff. 

An  analysis  of  corn  and  timothy  hay  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate   the    varying    amounts    of    the    different    nutrients. 


24      FEEDING  STUFFS  AND  THEIR  PREPARATION 


Corn 

% 

TlMOTHV    HaV 

% 

Water                                      

I0.6 
1-5 

2.2 
70.4 

S.o 

14..  I 

Ash 

^•0 

Crude  protein 

C.O 

3I-I 

■     43-7 

2.2 

lOO.O 

100.0 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  that  timothy  hay,  a  rough- 
age, is  much  higher  in  crude  fiber  and  lower  in  nitrogen  free 
extract  than  is  corn,  a  concentrate. 

In  general,  the  value  of  a  feeding  stuff  depends  upon 
the  digestible  nutrients  the  feed  contains.  The  animal 
cannot  use  all  of  each  nutrient  in  a  feed.  There  will  be  some 
waste.  It  is  only  the  part  of  the  feed  that  the  animal 
utilizes  that  is  of  value.  This  is  called  the  digestible 
nutrient  and  can  be  determined  only  by  experiment.  By 
digestibihty  is  meant  the  relation  which  that  portion  of  the 
nutrient  retained  and  used  by  the  animal  bears  to  the  total 
amount.  This  may  be  expressed  in  percentages  called 
coefficients  of  digestibiUty.  There  are  three  general 
methods  employed  for  determining  the  digestibility  of  feed. 
Only  one  of  these,  the  most  common  and  the  least  com- 
plicated, is  explained  in  the  following  paragraph. 

How  Digestibility  is  Determined.  —  Digestion  experi- 
ments are  conducted  with  ruminating  animals,  either  cattle 
or  sheep.  The  animal  is  confined  in  a  stall  and  an  accurate 
account  kept  both  of  the  feed  fed  and  the  amount  of  solid 
excrement.  Both  feed  and  solid  excrement  are  weighed 
and  analyzed.     The  difference  in  analysis  between  these 


DIGESTIBILITY 


25 


amounts  represents  the  amount  digested.  From  these  data 
it  is  easy  to  determine  the  percentage  of  digestible  nutrients 
in  a  feeding  stuff.  The  relative  values  of  feeds  may  be 
found  by  comparing  the  amounts  of  digestible  nutrients 
which  they  contain  as  shown  by  the  tables  in  the  Appendix. 
Factors  Influencing  Digestibility.  —  There  are  many 
factors  which  influence  the  digestibility  of  feeds.  The  most 
common  of  these  are : 

1.  The  relative  amounts  of  the  dif event  nutrients.  Feeds 
high  in  crude  fiber  and  low  in  nitrogen  free  extract,  such  as 
coarse  fodders,  are  low  in  digestibility,  while  those  low  in 
crude  fiber  and  high  in  nitrogen  free  extract,  such  as  con- 
centrates, are  high  in  digestibility. 

2.  The  maturity  of  the  plant.  The  stage  of  maturity  has 
an  effect  upon  the  digestibility  of  roughages.  The  younger 
the  plant,  the  higher  the  digestibiHty.  This  is  due  in  a 
measure  to  the  fact  that  as  the  plant  advances  in  age,  the 
crude  fiber  becomes  more  woody  and  harder  for  the  diges- 
tive juices  to  dissolve.  But  the  amounts  of  starch  and  sugar 
also  increase,  so  that  the  total  amounts  of  digestible  material 
increase  as  the  plant  approaches  maturity. 


Fig.  6.  —  Grinding  and  cutting  machines  used  to  increase  digestibility  of  feeds. 


26      FEEDING  STUFFS  AND   THEIR   PREPARATION 

3.  Grinding  or  crushing  feed.  In  some  cases  grinding  and 
crushing  increase  the  digestibiHty  of  feeds.  The  value  of 
crushing  is  especially  marked  in  grains  having  a  heavy  outer 
husk,  hke  oats  and  barley,  which  prevents  the  digestive 
juices  from  acting  freely  upon  the  more  digestible  interiors. 
Grinding  seems  to  be  more  valuable  for  horses  and  pigs  than 
for  ruminants,  whose  paunches  enable  them  to  more  com- 
pletely break  down  the  coarse  husks. 

4.  Cooking.  Cooking  has  been  found  to  lower  the  digest- 
ibility of  protein.  In  most  cases  investigators  have  found 
that  the  digestibility  of  feeding  stuffs  is  lowered  by  cooking, 
though  some  starchy  foods  like  potatoes  are  improved  in 
feeding  quality.  Skillful  feeders  often  cook  feeds  for  prize 
animals  for  the  purpose  of  adding  variety  to  the  ration. 


The  digestibility  of  fodder  depends  on  its  proper  curing. 


5.  Drying  and  curing.  Drying  forage  does  not  lower  its 
digestibility,  although  more  work  on  the  part  of  the  diges- 
tive organs  is  required  to  masticate  it  completely  and  to 
carry  it  through  the  alimentary  tract.  Faulty  curing  may 
cause  a  loss  of  some  of  the  more  digestible  parts  of  the  plant. 


DIGESTIBILITY  27 

6.  The  kind  of  animal.  Animals  of  the  same  species 
digest  food  about  equally  well,  although  individuals  may 
vary  greatly  in  this  power.  Cattle  and  sheep  digest  rough- 
age better  than  do  horses  and  pigs,  because  the  fermenta- 
tion which  takes  place  in  their  paunches  breaks  down  the 
cellulose  structure.  The  difference  is  less  noticeable  when 
concentrated  foods  are  fed. 

7.  Frequency  of  feeding.  The  time  of  watering  or  the  fre- 
quency and  the  order  of  feeding  do  not  seem  to  affect  the  di- 
gestibility, although  changes  in  order  and  time  of  feeding  and 
watering  may  seriously  affect  the  physical  condition  of  the 
animal  and  thus  lower  the  final  nutritive  effect  of  a  ration. 

8.  The  amount  of  food  given.  The  amount  of  food  given 
may  affect  digestibility.  The  digestibility  has  been  found 
to  increase  on  half  rations  and  is  probably  due  to  more 
intense  action  on  the  part  of  the  digestive  juices.  On  the 
other  hand,  too  much  food  may  tax  the  digestive  system, 
and  some  of  it  may  pass  through  unchanged. 

9.  The  amount  of  work.  Medium  work  has  been  found  to 
have  a  favorable  influence  upon  digestibility,  while  hard  or 
fast  work  lowers  digestibility. 

10.  The  age  of  the  animal.  After  the  digestive  organs 
have  reached  full  development  and  before  they  become 
impaired  by  old  age,  the  power  to  digest  food  is  greatest. 
Aside  from  this,  age  does  not  seem  to  influence  digestibility. 

1 1 .  The  breed.  One  breed  of  animal  digests  food  as  well 
as  another,  although  individuals  may  vary  in  this  respect. 

12.  The  value  of  kindness.  Harsh  treatment  may  in- 
fluence digestibility  by  interfering  with  a  normal  secretion 
of  digestive  fluids. 

The  Preservation  and  Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs.  — 
In  localities  where  feeding  stuffs  must  be  kept  from  one 


!8      FEEDING  STUFFS  AND   THEIR   PREPARATION 


season  of  the  year  to  another,  the  question  of  preservation 
and  its  effect  upon  their  feeding  value  is  of  large  impor- 
tance.    There  are  two  general  methods  now  in  use,  viz., 

drying  or  curing,  and 
ensihng. 

Drying  or  Curing. 
The  majority  of 
forage  crops  are  so 
high  in  water  con- 
tent when  harvested 
that  a  process  of  cur- 
ing must  be  resorted 
to.  While  the  mere 
drying  of  a  foodstuff 
does  not  impair  its 
nutritive  value,  there 
is  generally  a  loss 
of  feeding  value 
through  curing,  be- 
cause leaves  are  shat- 
tered  in  handling, 
and  aroma  is  lost  by 
the  evaporation  of 
dew.  Bleaching  by 
the  sun  also  causes 
a  chemical  loss,  and 
the  rain  and  the  dew 
carry  off  valuable  nutrients  in  solution.  Corn  forage,  al- 
lowed to  stand  in  the  field  over  winter,  loses  not  less  than 
25  per  cent  of  its  feeding  value  by  leaching  and  bleaching. 
The  making  of  good  hay  is  an  art.  Since  the  leaves  of 
alfalfa  and  clover  contain  the  most  valuable  part  of  the 


F.g    8.    -  Chopping  corn  forage  and  storing  it  in 
a  silo. 


ENSILING  29 

nutrients,  the  secret  of  successful  haymaking  is  to  withdraw 
the  water  so  uniformly  from  the  leaves  and  stems  that  the 
leaves  may  not  be  lost. 

Since  heating  will  cause  a  loss  of  its  feeding  value,  early 
picked  corn  and  grain  threshed  out  of  the  shock,  or  from 
stacks,  before  sweating  has  taken  place,  should  be  care- 
fully watched  to  prevent  heating. 

Ensiling.  —  Ensiling  is  the  storing  of  crops  as  soon  as  they 
are  cut  in  air-tight  receptacles  called  silos.  This  method 
reduces  the  losses  to  a  minimum.  Ensiling  preserves  the 
entire  plant  without  loss  of  water,  thus  producing  a  succulent 
feeding  stuff.  The  chemical  changes  which  take  place  in 
the  silo  make  the  feed  more  pleasing  to  the  taste.  These 
qualities  give  the  ensiled  crop  a  decided  advantage  over 
dried  crops.  The  silo  extends  the  conditions  of  summer 
feeding  throughout  the  year.  This  is  one  of  the  strong 
points  in  favor  of  silage  as  a  feed  for  producing  both  milk 
and  beef. 

Preparation  of  Feeding  Stuffs.  —  In  general,  the  less 
preparation  made  of  feeding  stuffs,  the  more  economical  the 
feeding  process.  However,  the  value  of  the  feeding  stuff 
may  sometimes  be  increased  by  cutting,  grinding,  or  soaking. 

Cutting.  —  Hay  or  straw  for  horses  and  cattle  is  often 
improved  by  cutting  it  in  lengths  of  2  or  3  inches.  This 
may  be  mixed  and  fed  with  a  grain  ration.  In  this  way  the 
value  of  the  hay  is  apparently  increased  because  the  animals 
eat  it  with  greater  relish,  and  the  grain  goes  further  because 
it  is  better  masticated  by  the  animal.  Shredding  corn 
stover  does  not  increase  its  feeding  value  but  it  reduces  the 
stover  to  a  form  that  is  more  easily  stored,  handled,  and  fed. 
The  waste  makes  good  bedding,  is  an  excellent  absorbent  of 
liquid  manure,  and  is  easily  applied  to  the  soil. 


30      FEEDING  STUFFS  AND   THEIR   PREPARATION 

Grinding  and  Crushing.  —  For  fattening  hogs  there  is 
no  economy  in  grinding  corn.  In  feeding  young  pigs  or 
older  animals  for  show  purposes  there  may  be  some  ad- 
vantage in  grinding.  More  rapid  gains  and  a  better  finish 
may  be  put  on,  but  these  will  be  accompHshed  at  an  in- 
creased cost. 

It  does  not  pay  to  grind  corn  for  fattening  cattle  if  hogs  are 
following.  The  gains  made  by  the  hogs  are  more  valuable 
than  the  increased  gains  made  by  the  cattle  on  ground  corn, 
to  say  nothing  of  the  cost  of  grinding.  In  case  of  feeding 
without  hogs  following,  the  grain  should  be  ground  to  pre- 
vent loss  of  feed.  For  fitting  cattle  for  show  purposes, 
improved  finish  and  more  rapid  gains  may  be  made  by  feed- 
ing ground  grains. 

The  dairy  cow  under  the  severe  strain  of  heavy  milking 
needs  ground  feed.  This  saves  her  energy  for  milk  produc- 
tion and  better  results  are  thus  obtained. 

Calves  do  better  on  cracked  or  crushed  grains  because 
their  organs  of  mastication  are  not  so  well  developed  and 
their  digestive  tracts  are  not  so  capable  of  handling  the 
unground  feed  as  those  of  the  mature  animal.  Fine  grind- 
ing should  not  be  resorted  to  because  of  the  additional  cost, 
and  because  finely  ground  grain  does  not  properly  exercise 
the  digestive  organs. 

Feeders  of  large  numbers  of  work  horses  feed  crushed  grain 
and  cut  hay  to  good  advantage.  They  find  there  is  an 
actual  saving  in  the  amount  of  grain  necessary  ;  besides  the 
horses  are  kept  in  better  condition. 

Sheep  can  usually  grind  their  own  grain,  but  young  lambs 
do  better  on  crushed  or  cracked  grains. 

Barley  and  old  corn,  on  account  of  their  hardness,  are 
digested  better  by  all  animals  when  crushed. 


EXERCISES  31 

Cooking  and  Soaking.  —  All  modern  investigators  are 
agreed  that  uncooked  foods  are  better  for  farm  animals. 
For  adding  variety  and  palatability  to  the  ration  and  im- 
proving the  finish  of  animals  being  fitted  for  show,  without 
regard  to  economy,  cooked  feeds  are  fed  with  good  results. 

Soaking  feeds  often  improves  them  by  rendering  them 
more  easily  masticated  and  carried  along  the  digestive 
tract.  The  mouths  of  grass-fed  beef  cattle  often  become 
sore  from  eating  hard,  dry  corn.  For  them  the  corn  may 
be  improved  by  soaking  for  twelve  hours  before  feeding. 
Barley  is  also  improved  for  pigs  by  soaking  it  for  the 
same  length  of  time. 

Care  of  Wet  Feeds.  —  Slop  or  moistened  feeds  should  not 
be  allowed  to  stand  long  in  dirty  barrels,  vats,  or  other 
receptacles.  Under  such  conditions  souring  takes  place 
and  feeds  become  unpalatable.  Disastrous  results  to  ani- 
mals may  follow  a  neglect  to  keep  receptacles  clean. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Would  you  feed  ground  corn  to  pigs ?     Why? 

2.  Does  it  pay  to  give  feeds  special  preparation? 

3.  For  what  purposes  should  feed  receive  special  preparation? 
How  should  it  be  prepared? 

4.  Which  is  to  be  preferred  as  a  feed,  pound  for  pound,  grass 
or  dry  hay? 

HOME   PROJECT 

By  feeding  two  lots  of  pigs,  one  on  whole  corn  and  the  other 
on  ground  corn,  and  slop,  and  keeping  accurate  records,  com- 
pare these  two  methods  of  feeding  corn.  All  other  conditions 
must  be  the  same. 


CHAPTER   III 
CLASSES    OF   FEEDING    STUFFS 

Feeding  stufes  are  usually  classified  as  roughages,  con- 
centrates, and  root  crops. 

Roughages.  —  Roughages  are  bulky  feeds  that  come 
from  the  grasses  and  forage  crops.  They  have  a  low 
amount  of  digestible  material  in  proportion  to  their  weight. 
Included  under  the  head  of  roughages  are  the  grasses,  the 
legumes,  the  straws  of  different  cereals,  silage,  and  stover. 

Concentrates.  —  Included  under  this  head  are  the  cereal 
grains,  the  oil-bearing  seeds,  and  a  large  number  of  so- 
called  by-product  feeding  stuffs  from  the  following  sources  : 
the  milling  of  grains,  the  manufacture  of  cereal  foods, 
starch,  sugar  and  glucose,  and  the  extraction  of  oils,  and 
the  slaughtering  of  animals.  Concentrates  are  just  what 
the  name  implies,  concentrated  feeds,  since  they  are  high 
in  the  easily  digested  nutrients. 

Roots  and  Tubers.  —  This  group  of  feeding  stuffs  in- 
cludes a  large  number  of  crops  that  form  a  valuable  source 
of  food  for  animals  in  countries  where  corn  cannot  be 
successfully  grown.  Root  crops  may  be  considered  as 
very  succulent  concentrates. 

The  Grasses.  —  Grass  is  the  natural  diet  of  all  our 
domesticated  live  stock  and  the  experienced  feeder  knows 
that  the  more  he  keeps  his  stock  on  a  diet  which  closely 
resembles  grass  pasture  the  more  successful  his  feeding. 

32 


ROOTS  AND   CORN 


33 


Included  among  the  grasses  are  corn,  Kentucky  blue 
grass,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  redtop,  prairie  grass,  marsh 
grass,  quack  grass,  brome  grass,  Bermuda  grass,  Johnson 
grass,  Italian  rye  grass,  the  cereal  grains,  and  other  more 
or  less  important  grasses. 

Corn  as  Roughage.  —  Though  usually  grown  for  the 
grain  to   be   used    for    human  and    animal    consumption. 


Parsnip 
Roots  used  for  food. 


Mangel-wurzel 


corn  is  in  reality  a  giant  grass.  It  is  more  valuable  to  the 
American  farmer  than  all  the  other  grains  produced.  When 
it  is  planted  in  rows  about  3i  feet  apart  it  reproduces  the 
grain  more  than  a  thousandfold.  Indeed  the  richness  of 
our  soils  in  many  sections  of  the  country  is  rated  by  the 
amount  of  corn  that  can  be  raised  upon  them.     When 

T.    AND   L.    ANIMAL    HUSB. — 3 


34  CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

this  great  crop  is  grown  thickly  in  the  row,  or  is  sown  broad- 
cast upon  the  field,  a  veritable  giant  grass  crop  is  formed 
that  will  yield  lo  to  20  tons  of  green  material  per  acre. 

As  a  feed  for  all  classes  of  live  stock  corn  is  unsurpassed. 
It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  it  is  a  highly 
carbonaceous  feed  and  should  not  be  depended  upon  en- 
tirely for  feed  for  the  young,  or  for  the  mother  animal 
producing  milk. 

The  Sorghums.  —  These  embrace  a  number  of  large 
grasses  which  are  becoming  more  and  more  important  to 
the  farmers  of  the  semiarid  regions  of  the  West  and 
Southwest.  Although  some  of  these  plants  are  as  large 
as  corn  they  differ  from  it  in  that  the  seeds  grow  at  the 
top  of  the  plant  instead  of  in  the  axil  of  the  leaf,  as  is  the 
case  with  corn.  These  plants  are  better  than  corn  for 
dry  climates  because  they  do  not  suffer  so  easily  from 
drought.  The  commonest  of  the  sorghums  used  for  feeds 
are  Kafir,  amber  cane,  and  broom  corn. 

The  Smaller  Grasses.  —  While  the  farmer  recognizes  the 
value  of  corn  and  the  sorghums  for  furnishing  large  yields 
of  roughage,  he  looks  to  the  smaller  grasses,  which  need 
no  cultivation  and  five  on  from  year  to  year,  for  hay  and 
pasture. 

Kentucky  Blue  Grass.  —  Ordinary  blue  grass  is  the 
common  grass  of  large  sections  of  the  country  and  is  found 
in  abundance  in  Kentucky,  Missouri,  and  the  Virginias. 
It  flourishes  where  there  is  much  lime  in  the  soil,  and  if 
left  to  itself  for  a  few  years  will  drive  out  other  plants. 
Grazing  sections  are  valued  in  proportion  to  their  ability 
to  produce  blue  grass.  A  great  many  of  the  best  beef 
cattle  of  the  country  are  annually  fattened  on  blue  grass 
as  a  part  or  all  of  the  ration. 


GRASSES 


35 


Timothy.  —  Timothy  is  the  commonest  grass  grown  for 
hay.  On  the  market  it  sells  well  because  it  is  clean  and 
bright  and  of  uniform  quality.  The  farmer  Hkes  it  because 
it  is  easy  to  seed  and  easy  to  cure  into  hay. 

Timothy  hay  is  low  in  protein  and  ash  and  high  in 
crude  fiber.  These  qualities  make  it  a  poor  feed  for  young 
animals,  for  sheep, 
and  dairy  cows.  It 
should  not  be  fed  to 
these  animals  when 
clover  or  alfalfa 
is  available.  It  is 
the  popular  hay  for 
horses  because  it  is 
free  from  dust  and 
easy  to  handle  and 
store.  It  can  be  fed 
to  beef  cattle  dur- 
ing the  later  stages 
of  fattening  when 
they  consume  only 
small  amounts  of 
hay,  but  clover  or 
alfalfa  are  more 
economical  for  this 


Fig.   10. 


Timothy  from  blossom  (left)  to  maturity 
(right). 


purpose. 

Orchard  Grass.  —  Orchard  grass  is  grown  in  shady  places 
where  other  grasses  do  not  thrive  on  account  of  the  scarcity 
of  sunhght.  This  grass  is  very  coarse  and  when  allowed  to 
mature  fully  is  too  high  in  crude  fiber,  and  too  low  in  pro- 
tein, to  make  good  feed  for  young  stock.  If  cut  before 
fully  ripe,  and  properly  cured,  it  makes  good  hay. 


36 


CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Redtop.  —  This  is  sometimes  mistaken  for  blue  grass 
which  it  closely  resembles.  It  grows  on  low  damp  places 
and  matures  early  in  the  summer.  When  young  and  soft 
it  makes  fairly  good  pasture,  but  it  becomes  wiry  and  tough 

as  it  approaches  ma- 
turity.  To  make 
good  hay  it  should 
be  cut  early. 

Prairie  Grass.  — 
The  original  grass  of 
all  prairie  regions  is 
tall  with  but  few 
leaves.  When  the 
land  is  once  broken 
up  this  grass  disap- 
pears. It  is  thus  be- 
coming extinct  in 
cultivated  sections 
of  the  country,  and 
is  of  little  economic 
importance.  When 
cut  and  cured  it 
makes  good  hay  for 
horses,  being  espe- 
cially free  from  dust. 
Marsh  Grass.  — 
This  coarse,  woody  grass  is  valuable  in  dry  years  to  take 
the  place  of  pasture  grass  for  those  who  have  unreclaimed 
marsh  land.  It  cures  into  a  clean  hay  but  it  is  too  low  in 
protein  to  be  valuable  as  a  food  for  young  stock  and  milk- 
producing  animals. 

Brome   Grass.  —  This   grass  is  quite   commonly  culti- 


Fig.   II.  —  Brome  grass. 


GRASSES  37 

vated  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley 
and  grown  with  success  in  the  Dakotas  and  Canada.  In 
these  regions  it  is  a  heavier  yielder  than  blue  grass  and  has 
higher  feeding  value  than  timothy,  especially  for  growing 
stock  and  for  dairy  cattle.     It  is  also  good  for  pasture. 

Bermuda  Grass.  —  This  grass  grows  in  the  cotton  belt 
states  where  it  is  more  valuable  for  pasture  than  is  blue 
grass.  It  is  so  persistent  in  its  habits  of  growth  that  it  is 
considered  a  pest  in  cultivated  fields.  If  made  into  hay  it 
should  be  cut  early,  because  it  becomes  woody  as  it  ap- 
proaches maturity. 

The  Cereals  as  Grasses.  —  The  cereals  are  usually  grown 
for  their  seeds  or  grain.  When  pastures  are  poor  or  in 
case  of  insufficient  land,  the  cereals  may  be  used  for  feeding 
green  as  soiling  crops,  or  they  may  be  grazed  off  for  pas- 
ture. If  cut  while  the  grain  is  still  in  the  milk,  a  bright, 
nutritious  hay  may  be  made.  Oats  are  the  best  substitute 
for  grass,  making  the  best  pasture  and  the  best  hay.  Barley 
is  next  in  value  and  rye  stands  last. 

The  Legumes.  —  The  legumes  are  plants  which  produce 
their  seeds  in  pods.  When  the  proper  bacteria  are  pres- 
ent in  the  soil  they  have  the  power  of  fixing  the  free 
nitrogen  of  the  air  and  storing  it  in  nodules  which  develop 
upon  their  roots.  In  this  way  these  plants  add  nitro- 
gen to  the  soil  upon  which  they  grow.  They  utilize  nitro- 
gen in  the  growth  of  their  stems  and  leaves.  Hence  they 
contain  a  high  percentage  of  protein.  They  form  the  prin- 
cipal source  of  high  protein  roughages. 

The  principal  legumes  are  alfalfa,  the  clovers  (medium 
red,  mammoth,  alsike,  Japan,  white,  sweet,  and  crimson), 
peas,  cowpeas,  beans,  peanuts,  vetches,  sanfoin,  and 
seradella. 


SS  CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Alfalfa.  —  Alfalfa  flourishes  in  the  semiarid  regions  of 
the  West.  It  is  the  best  of  hay  crops.  The  leaves  which 
carry  most  of  the  protein  are  the  most  valuable  portions  of 
the  plant. 

In  regions  where  alfalfa  flourishes  it  makes  the  best  of 
pastures.  In  some  of  the  Western  States  large  yields  of 
milk  are  secured  from  cows  running  upon  alfalfa  pasture. 
Steers,  hogs,  sheep,  and  horses  are  also  fattened  on  alfalfa 
pasture  only.  In  the  Middle  West  and  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  however,  it  is  not  advisable  to  pasture  this  crop 
when  the  ground  is  soft,  as  the  feet  of  the'  animals  cut  the 
crowns  and  thus  seriously  damage  the  plants.  There  is 
special  danger,  if  sheep  or  cattle  are  turned  on  to  alfalfa 
fields  wet  with  rain  or  dew,  from  bloat,  or  hoven,  that  is 
likely  to  follow. 

In  making  the  hay,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  save 
the  leaves,  which  break  off  very  easily. 

Alfalfa  can  be  ensiled  with  fairly  good  results.  It  should 
be  considered  as  a  hay  crop,  however,  and  ensiled  only 
when  wet  weather  prevents  making  it  into  hay.  Alfalfa 
silage  has  a  much  stronger  smell  than  corn  silage  and  un- 
less it  is  cut  into  short  lengths  it  is  hard  to  remove  from 
the  silo. 

For  the  dairy  cow  there  is  no  hay  so  good  as  alfalfa.  It 
is  the  best  source  of  home-grown  protein,  and  furnishes, 
in  the  cheapest  form,  the  constituents  so  necessary  to  milk 
production.  For  steer  feeding,  it  is  the  best  roughage  to 
feed  with  corn,  since  it  balances  the  ration  by  supplying 
the  protein  and  mineral  matter  in  which  corn  is  deficient. 
Fed  alone  to  steers  it  fattens  them  well.  For  calves,  it  is 
the  best  roughage,  because  it  supplies  the  crude  fiber  neces- 
sary to  proper  development  of  the  paunch  of  the  calf,  and 


LEGUMES 


39 


also  contains  the  protein  and  mineral  matter  essential  for 
the  calf's  growth.  If  fed  judiciously  in  limited  amounts, 
it  is  especially  valuable  for  the  growing  colt.  It  is  one  of 
the  best  roughages  for  all  classes  of  sheep.  Hogs  relish 
alfalfa  hay  better  than  any  other  roughage.  For  young 
growing  pigs,  it  is 
valuable  either  as 
pasture  in  connec- 
tion with  the  ordi- 
nary ration  or  cut 
and  fed  in  the  form  of 
slop.  For  feeding  the 
mothers  of  all  young 
animals  the  hay  is 
the  best  roughage 
that  can  be  obtained. 
Medium  Red 
Clover.  —  Medium 
red  clover  is  one  of 
the  commonest  leg- 
umes in  the  North- 
ern States,  and  is 
the  usual  crop  sown 
in  rotations  with 
corn,  grain,  and  hay. 


Alfalfa  is  the  best  of  hay  crops. 


Fig.   12. 

While  not  so  valuable  as  alfalfa  be- 
cause of  its  smaller  yields  and  lower  protein  content,  its 
more  extensive  cultivation  renders  it  equal  to  alfaKa  as  a 
feeding  stuff. 

Mammoth  Red  Clover.  —  As  the  name  imphes,  this 
clover  is  larger  and  coarser  than  the  medium  red  variety, 
and  is  not  grown  so  widely  for  feed.  It  ripens  somewhat 
earlier  than  the  medium  red.     It  may  be  pastured  in  the 


40 


CLASSES  OF   FEEDING  STUFFS 


spring  for  two  or  three  weeks  and  then  cut  before  it  gets  too 
coarse,  in  which  case,  if  well  cured,  it  makes  good  hay. 
The  second  crop  is  visually  plowed  under. 

Alsike  Clover.  —  This  clover  which  resembles  white 
clover  is  much  larger  and  has  pink  blossoms  instead.  It  is 
usually  grown  with  timothy.  It  is  not  so  heavy  a  yielder 
as  medium  red  clover  but  is  of  finer  texture  and  makes  an 
excellent  quality  of  hay  for  all  classes  of  live  stock. 

Crimson  Clover.  —  This  variety  is  grown  most  exten- 
sively in  the  East  and  South.     If  cut  early,  it  makes  a  good 

quality  of  hay. 
After  it  has  begun 
to  ripen,  the  heads 
are  covered  with 
barbed  hairs  which 
may  form  balls  in 
the  intestines  of 
horses  and  cause 
serious  digestive 
troubles  sometimes 
resulting  in  death. 
White  Clover.— 
White  clover  is  pe- 
rennial in  nature 
and  the  best  crops 
are  grown  on  well- 
drained  clay  lands. 
It  makes  good  pas- 
ture but  it  is  said 
to  cause  an  abundant  secretion  of  saliva  in  horses. 

Sweet  Clover.  -  This  legume  is  sometimes  regarded  as 
a  weed  and  is  not  extensively  sown  as  a  hay  or  pasture 


i-ig-  13- 


Medium  red  clover.     One  of  our  commonest 
legumes. 


LEGUMES  41 

crop.  If  it  is  cut  early  before  it  has  become  too  coarse  and 
woody,  it  makes  a  valuable  hay.  For  this  reason  it  is  grow- 
ing rapidly  in  favor  in  certain  sections  of  the  country. 

Peas.  —  Peas  are  often  very  profitably  grown  with  oats, 
when  the  crop  is  to  be  grazed  off  by  hogs,  or  to  be  fed  to 
dairy  cows.  In  districts  where  peas  are  grown  for  canning 
purposes,  the  vines  are  cured  into  hay  or  made  into  silage. 
As  silage  they  form  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  fattening  sheep. 
They  may  also  be  used  for  feeding  dairy  cows  and  beef  cat- 
tle. Ensiled  pea  vines  contain  a  large  amount  of  water, 
and  if  fed  in  too  large  quantities  may  cause  serious  diges- 
tive disturbances.  They  should  always  be  fed  in  connec- 
tion with  hay  or  a  dry  grain  ration  to  counteract  this  tend- 
ency. Peas  contain  high  percentages  of  both  phosphorus 
and  protein  which  make  them  excellent  feed  for  all  classes 
of  young  stock.  The  dried  seeds  when  ground  are  valuable 
as  feed  for  hogs  and  dairy  cattle. 

Beans.  — ■  While  beans  are  usually  grown  for  human 
food,  they  may  be  used  to  good  advantage  for  feeding 
stock.  They  are  high  in  protein  and  mineral  matter. 
Where  beans  are  raised  for  the  market,  the  straw  is  valu- 
able as  a  roughage  for  fattening  sheep. 

Cowpeas.  —  Cowpeas  are  grown  extensively  south  of  the 
Ohio  River.  In  some  of  the  North  Central  States  fairly 
good  results  have  been  obtained  from  their  use.  They  are 
hard  to  cure,  but  where  they  can  be  grov/n  successfully, 
they  may  form  a  good  roughage  for  sheep  and  dairy  cows. 

Peanuts.  —  Though  usually  grown  for  human  consump- 
tion, peanuts  are  used  as  a  feed  for  live  stock  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  in  some  states.  Hogs  do  well  when  turned 
upon  the  crop  in  the  field  and  allowed  to  dig  the  peanuts 
for  themselves.     When  peanuts  are  harvested  in  the  usual 


42  CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

way  the  vines  may  be  cured  into  a  nutritious  hay  and  fed 
to  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 

Vetch.  —  Hairy  vetch  is  the  principal  vetch  grown  as  a 
feed  for  live  stock.  It  makes  good  pasture  for  hogs,  cattle, 
and  sheep,  and  can  be  made  into  a  hay  of  excellent  quality. 

Straw.  —  This  term  applies  to  the  stalks  of  the  cereals 
after  the  grain  has  been  removed.  Straw  is  high  in  crude 
fiber  and  low  in  protein,  nitrogen  free  extract,  fat,  and 
mineral  matter.     It  is  therefore  low  in  digestibility. 

As  a  feeding  stuff,  straw  is  very  useful  to  supply  rough- 
age to  horses  and  cattle  that  are  being  maintained  over 
winter.  It  is  often  fed  with  advantage  to  fattening  steers 
along  with  a  hberal  supply  of  concentrates  and  other  rough- 
ages. It  may  also  be  cut  into  short  lengths  and  intro- 
duced into  the  grain  ration  of  the  horse.  "  Heavy  "  and 
other  greedy  horses  should  receive  some  straw  as  part  of 
their  rations  to  prevent  overeating  of  dusty  hay.  Oat 
straw  is  the  best.  Barley  straw  comes  next  in  feeding 
value.     Wheat  and  rye  straw  have  small  value  as  feed. 

Concentrates.  —  Concentrates  or  concentrated  feeding 
stuffs,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  necessary  in  the 
rations  of  all  animals  that  are  performing  hard  work,  or 
that  are  being  fattened,  or  those  which  are  rearing  young. 

Concentrates  may  be  classified  under  the  following 
groups : 

1.  Seeds  of  various  plants, 

2.  Commercial  by-product  feeds. 

Under  the  head  of  seeds  come  the  cereal  grains,  oil-bear- 
ing seeds,  and  leguminous  seeds  low  in  oil.  Under  the  head 
of  ^'  by-products  "  come  a  great  many  feeds  that  are  the 
result  of  commercial  operations  in  the  manufacture  of 
certain  commodities. 


CEREALS 


43 


Com.  —  Corn  is  the  king  of  American  crops.  The  grain 
is  high  in  starch  and  fat.  It  is  comparatively  low  in  pro- 
tein and  mineral  matter  and  contains  but  a  small  amount 
of  crude  fiber.  It  is  one  of  the  best  feeds  to  put  on  fat 
and  to  furnish  heat  and  energy  to  the  animal.  Since  the 
corn  kernel  is  low  in 
protein  and  mineral 
matter,  so  important 
for  growth,  corn 
should  not  be  the 
sole  feed  for  the 
growing  animal,  or 
the  dairy  cow,  but 
should  always  be  fed 
with  some  other  feed 
that  is  high  in  these 
important  sub- 
stances. Normal 
growth  is  impossible 
on  an  exclusive  corn 
ration. 

Corn  may  well 
make  up  a  part  of 
the  rations  of  all  of 
our  farm  animals, 
provided  good  judg- 
ment is  exercised  in 
the  amounts  and  the  proportions  fed.  For  the  dairy  cow 
from  20  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  of  the  ration  may  be  made 
up  of  corn.  For  fattening  steers  it  is  practically  indispen- 
sable. Although  there  is  a  prevalent  notion  that  corn  is 
not  a  good  feed  for  horses,  it  has  been  found  as  effective  as 


Carcass  of  hog,  fed  on  corn  alone,  and  one 
of  hog  fed  on  com  and  alfalfa. 


44 


CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 


oats,  which  is  usually  considered  to  be  the  standard  feed. 
For  fattening  horses  for  the  market,  corn  has  been  found 
cheaper  and  better  than  any  other  farm-grown  feed.  For 
the  fattening  of  sheep  and  lambs,  corn  is  very  valuable. 
In  America,  corn  is  the  chief  ration  for  hogs. 


Fig. 


Fattening  hogs  on  unhusked  com. 


Wheat.  —  Wheat  is  raised  in  large  amounts  for  human 
consumption,  and  is  generally  taken  as  a  standard  when 
considering  the  price  of  foodstuffs. 

As  a  feed  for  live  stock,  wheat  is  of  little  importance, 
because  it  is  generally  too  high  in  price.  However,  it 
often  happens  that  some  of  the  grain  is  damaged  by  rains, 
frost,  or  blight.  These  damaged  kernels  are  useful  for  feed- 
ing .purposes.  Wheat  is  higher  in  protein  and  mineral 
matter  than  corn  and  is  therefore  to  be  preferred  in  the 
ration  of  the  growing  animal. 

Oats.  —  This  grain  stands  next  to  corn  as  a  feeding 
stuff.     Oats  is  very  variable  in  quality  and  in  weight  per 


CEREALS  45 

bushel.  The  standard  weight  calls  for  32  pounds,  but  this 
may  vary  from  20  pounds  in  the  South,  where  a  great  deal 
of  hull  appears,  to  40  pounds  in  the  states  of  the  North- 
west, where  a  more  plump  kernel  with  less  hull  is  pro- 
duced. Per  hundred  pounds  of  weight,  this  grain  is  higher 
in  protein  and  mineral  matter  than  corn,  but  is  lower  in 
digestible  carbohydrates  due  to  a  higher  percentage  of 
crude  fiber  and  a  somewhat  lower  percentage  of  starch. 
It  is  higher  in  fat  than  wheat. 

Oats  is  one  of  the  safest  of  feeds.  Due  to  the  high 
amount  of  crude  fiber  it  carries,  it  is  not  a  heavy  feed ; 
and  its  well-proportioned  amounts  of  the  various  nutrients 
make  it  approach  more  nearly  to  the  requirements  of  a 
properly  balanced  ration,  for  all  classes  of  animals,  than 
any  other  single  feeding  stuff.  It  is  the  best  feed  for  the 
road  horse.  For  growing  young  horses,  calves,  and  sheep 
it  is  almost  indispensable,  forming  either  all  or  part  of  the 
grain  rations  for  these  animals.  It  may  also  form  about 
20  per  cent  or  more  of  the  grain  ration  for  the  dairy  cow, 
and  some  of  the  slop  ration  for  the  brood  sow.  The  high 
amount  of  crude  fiber  makes  this  grain  poorly  adapted  for 
fattening  swine.  It  is  well  to  have  oats  in  the  ration  of 
the  young  lamb,  and  the  breeding  ewe.  Oats  makes  a 
good  feed  for  all  classes  of  male  animals. 

Barley.  —  This  cereal  grain  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
grown  crops  that  the  world  produces,  and  forms  one  of  the 
principal  sources  of  human  food.  For  this  purpose,  large 
quantities  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  pearl  barley. 
As  a  feeding  stuff,  it  is  good  for  all  classes  of  farm  animals. 

In  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  barley  is  the 
principal  horse  feed,  and  in  parts  of  the  country  near  the 
corn  belt,  it  is  growing  in  popularity  as  a  substitute  for  oats. 


46  CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

Because  of  the  hard  outside  hull,  this  grain  is  better  for  the 
horse  if  crushed.  As  a  feed  for  cattle,  mixed  with  corn, 
it  makes  a  better  feed  than  either  barley  or  corn  fed  alone. 
For  the  dairy  cow  it  should  be  either  crushed  or  ground. 
Barley  is  also  used  for  feeding  hogs.  Since  it  ripens  early, 
it  makes  a  good  feed  for  summer  and  early  fall.  In  the  form 
of  slop,  with  ground  oats  or  ground  corn,  it  greatly  im- 
proves the  ration  for  the  young  pig.  If  fed  whole,  it  should 
be  soaked  for  about  twelve  hours  before  feeding. 

Rye.  —  Rye  is  usually  grown  on  poor  soils  where  it  or- 
dinarily yields  better  than  other  cereals.  It  is  not  a  pop- 
ular feed  because  of  its  low  yields  and  because  it  is  an 
unsafe  feed  for  some  classes  of  live  stock.  The  grain  fre- 
quently carries  ergot,  a  parasitic  disease  that  may  cause 
serious  trouble,  and  even  death.  When  mixed  with  other 
cereals  it  may  be  fed  to  fattening  animals  with  good  re- 
sults. Horses  doing  heavy,  slow  work  keep  in  excellent 
condition  on  it. 

Emmer.  —  This  cereal  is  a  member  of  the  wheat  family. 
It  has  a  heavier  bran  than  wheat  and  because  of  this  is 
more  variable  in  its  composition  and  feeding  value.  It 
will  do  better  than  some  other  cereals  in  regions  of  light 
rainfall.  Large  quantities  are  grown  in  the  West,  where  it 
is  used  in  place  of  oats  for  feeding  all  classes  of  live  stock. 

ROOT  CROPS 

Root  crops  are  those  crops  that  store  most  of  their 
material  in  the  roots.  In  European  countries  and  also  in 
Canada  large  quantities  of  roots  are  used  as  feeds  for 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses.  In  the  United  States  corn  can 
be  grown  more  cheaply.  Com  silage  makes  a  feed  stuff 
equal  in  value  to  root  crops  at  one  half  the  cost. 


ROOT  CROPS  47 

Root  Crops  High  in  Water.  —  Root  crops  are  high  in 
water  content,  which  may  vary  from  80  per  cent  to  90  per 
cent.  The  dry  matter  in  them  is  in  feeding  value  equal 
to  an  equivalent  weight  of  the  best  grains.  Root  crops 
may  thus  be  considered  as  watered  concentrates  which 
are  of  great  value  in  furnishing  succulence  to  the  ration 
of  the  animal.  They  also  have  a  tonic  effect  not  produced 
by  other  crops.  Roots  are  usually  sliced  or  pulped  and  fed 
alone  or  with  the  grain  ration.  In  Scotland  and  England, 
they  are  sometimes  pulped  and  mixed  with  cut  straw  or 
hay,  and  allowed  to  stand  for  some  time  before  feeding. 

Roots  Similar  to  Grass.  —  Roots  are  valuable  for  the 
breeding  animal,  the  animal  producing  milk,  and  for  grow- 
ing and  fattening  animals.  The  Utah  Experiment  Station 
reports  as  follows :  "  (i)  The  live  weight  gain  for  cattle 
and  sheep  was  greater,  and  for  hogs  less,  when  fed  on  roots. 

(2)  The  dressed  weight  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  showed 
in  every  case  greater    shrinkage  for  those  fed  on  roots. 

(3)  The  root-fed  animals  contained  more  blood  and  neces- 
sarily more  water  in  the  blood.  (4)  The  root-fed  steers 
had  heavier  vital  organs.  (5)  The  fat  was  always  less 
for  the  root-fed  animals."  The  foregoing  shows  that  the 
bodies  of  the  root-fed  animals  are  about  the  same  as  the 
bodies  of  animals  that  feed  on  grass,  which  is  nature's 
ration  and  the  one  upon  which  the  animals  do  best  and 
keep  in  the  best  health.  For  animals  that  are  to  be  fat- 
tened or  fitted  for  show,  roots  are  very  valuable. 

Roots  Commonly  Used.  —  Some  of  the  common  roots 
for  the  dairy  cow  are  the  sugar  beet,  the  rutabaga  or  swede, 
and  the  carrot.  For  beef  cattle  the  mangel  is  usually  pro- 
duced and  for  sheep  the  flat  turnip  is  most  commonly 
grown.     Though  sugar  beets  are  hard  to  harvest  they  are 


48  .    CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

excellent  to  add  to  the  ration  of  the  cow.  Sugar  beets 
are  about  equal  to  silage  in  feeding  value  but  cost  more 
to  produce.  Mangels  are  heavy  yielders,  and  should  be 
fed  pulped  or  sliced.  Rutabagas  may  taint  the  milk  of 
cows,  and  should  be  fed  after  milking.  Carrots  are  good 
for  horses,  especially  for  young  horses.  While  potatoes 
are  low  in  yield  compared  with  some  of  the  other  crops, 
small  and  otherwise  unsalable  potatoes  may  be  fed  sliced 
to  cows,  and  cooked  to  pigs,  with  good  results. 

Roots  should  be  stored  in  a  good  root  cellar  and  not 
allowed  to  freeze.     Frozen  roots  should  never  be  fed. 


CORN   SILAGE  AND   ITS   PREPARATION 

Although  any  green  forage  crop  may  be  ensiled,  expe- 
rience has  taught  that  corn  is  the  best  crop  for  the  silo. 

Filling  the  Silo.  —  The  best  time  to  cut  corn  for  silage 
is  when  the  kernels  are  well  glazed,  or  about  the  same  stage 
of  growth  that  corn  is  usually  cut  for  grain.  When  filling 
the  silo,  the  material  should  be  chopped  with  a  silage  cutter 
into  bits  about  i  inch  in  length,  and  well  tramped  down, 
especially  at  the  edges,  in  order  to  exclude  the  air.  The 
maximum  amount  of  silage  can  be  stored  in  the  silo  if  the 
material  is  allowed  to  settle  a  day  or  two  after  each  day's 
filling.  One  of  the  approved  modern  methods  of  handling 
silage  is  to  fill  the  silo  as  full  as  possible  and  then  to  seal 
it  by  planting  on  top  of  the  silage,  oats  or  other  crop  that, 
in  growing,  will  form  a  mat  which  will  exclude  the  air. 
After  the  silo  is  opened,  there  should  be  continuous  feeding 
to  prevent  long  exposure  to  the  air,  which  will  cause  molds 
to  grow,  and  result  in  poor  feeding  material.  About  two 
inches  in  depth  of  the  silage  should  be  fed  each  day.     This 


CORN  SILAGE  49 

means  there  should  be  a  relationship  between  the  exposed 
surface  of  the  silage  and  the  amount  of  feed  used  daily. 
Practically  all  silos  are  now  made  round,  because  the  round 
silo  has  more  volume  for  the  same  amount  of  building 
material,  more  uniform  pressure  throughout,  and  there  are 
no  corners  in  which  it  is  difficult  to  pack  the  silage. 

How  to  Calculate  the  Capacity  of  a  Silo.  —  A  silo  that  is 
twice  the  diameter  of  another  requires  only  twice  the 
building  material,  but  holds  four  times  the  amount  of 
silage  for  each  foot  in  height,  and  one  that  has  three  times 
the  diameter,  has  nine  times  the  capacity.  In  arranging 
the  silo,  it  is  a  good  rule  to  allow  35  or  40  pounds  of  silage 
daily  per  cow.  In  a  silo  30  feet  deep,  each  cubic  foot  of 
silage  weighs  about  40  pounds,  and  the  average  square  foot 
of  surface  2  inches  thick  about  7  pounds.  It  will  then 
take  about  6  square  feet  of  surface  2  inches  thick  to  supply 
one  cow  for  one  day.  To  supply  a  herd  of  30  cows,  it 
will  take  30  X  6  square  feet  or  180  square  feet,  which  will 
be  furnished  by  a  silo  with  a  diameter  of  15  feet.  The 
silo  30  feet  deep  and  15  feet  in  diameter  will  supply  silage 
for  a  period  of  180  days  for  a  herd  of  30  cows,  if  each 
animal  is  fed  40  pounds  of  silage  daily. 

Feeding  Silage.  —  As  a  feed  for  the  dairy  cow  in  the  corn 
belt  silage  is  practically  indispensable.  It  may  be  fed  to 
young  calves,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  corn  silage 
is  a  feed  low  in  protein  and  mineral  matter  and  high  in 
crude  fiber.  For  calves  it  must  be  supplemented  with  feeds 
higher  in  protein.  Silage  may  be  fed  to  horses  in  limited 
amounts,  but  it  is  too  watery  to  furnish  a  large  proportion 
of  the  ration  of  working  horses.  Only  the  best  quality  of 
silage,  free  from  molds,  should  ever  be  given  to  the  horse. 
Sheep  do  well  when  silage  forms  part  of  the  ration. 

T.    AND   L.    ANIMAL   HUSB. — 4 


50  CLASSES  OF  FEEDING  STUFFS 

There  is  danger  in  feeding  frozen  silage.  After  it  has 
thawed  out  it  may  be  fed,  but  it  spoils  quickly  after  having 
been  once  frozen.  Frosted  corn  makes  good  silage,  but  is 
drier  than  silage  made  from  corn  that  has  never  been  frozen. 
Since  silage  corn  loses  a  great  many  of  its  leaves  after  being 
frosted,  it  should  be  cut,  if  possible,  before  frost  comes. 

Manufacturers  of  condensed  milk  and  Swiss  cheese  often 
contend  that  silage-fed  milk  makes  a  poor  quality  of  these 
products.  Scientific  investigation  has  failed  to  show  that 
there  is  anything  in  silage  milk  that  makes  it  different  from 
other  milk.  In  some  localities  milk  produced  by  silage- 
fed  cows  is  accepted  at  condensaries.  Owing  to  its  high 
water  content  there  is  some  danger  of  unsanitary  conditions 
existing  about  barns  where  silage  is  used,  but  if  properly 
handled  and  fed,  silage  produces  a  good  quaUty  of  milk. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  list  of  roughages  in  the  order  of  feeding  value. 

2.  Arrange  a  list  of  concentrates  in  order  of  protein  content. 

3.  Make  out  a  list  of  feeds  that  are  high  in  oils. 

4.  Write  a  classified  list  of  seeds  used  as  feeding  stuffs. 

5.  Is  cottonseed  worthy  of  special  consideration  as  a  feeding 
stuff  ?     Why? 

HOME   PROJECT 

Assist  in  the  preservation  or  preparation  of  feeding  stuffs  on 
the  home  farm.  Keep  a  careful  account  of  the  processes  in- 
volved, the  expenses  incurred,  and  the  results  obtained,  in  con- 
nection with  at  least  one  such  feed. 


CHAPTER   IV 
BY-PRODUCT    FEEDING    STUFFS 

By-product  feeding  stuffs  are  derived  from  various 
sources,  such  as  the  mining  of  grains,  the  manufacture  of 
cereal  foods,  starch,  sugar,  glucose,  the  extraction  of  oils, 
the  slaughter  of  animals,  and  the  manufacture  of  butter 
and  cheese. 

Wheat  Bran.  —  This  is  the  most  widely  used  of  all  by- 
products and  the  one  best  known  to  the  American  farmer. 
The  outside  coats  of  the  wheat  grain  are  high  in  protein  and 
mineral  matter,  principally  phosphorus.  In  milling,  these 
coats  are  removed.  Bran  is  made  up  of  these  coats,  and  if 
of  good  quaHty,  consists  of  large  flakes,  bright  in  color, 
and  light  in  weight.  It  contains  a  high  percentage  of  crude 
fiber  which  gives  it  bulk  and  makes  it  a  Hght  and  safe 
feeding  stuff. 

As  a  feed  for  farm  animals  it  has  a  wide  range  of  usefulness. 
For  the  dairy  cow  it  is  considered  almost  indispensable  by 
some  feeders  because  it  furnishes  the  protein  and  mineral 
matter  so  essential  to  the  production  of  milk.  Its  bulk, 
lightness,  and  laxative  properties  make  it  easily  digested 
and  help  to  keep  the  animal  in  a  thrifty  condition.  For  fat- 
tening steers  it  is  sometimes  too  high  in  price  to  be  used 
regularly  unless  fed  in  connection  with  corn,  a  combination 
that  brings  good  results.  For  calves,  bran  is  an  excellent 
feed  when  fed  with  either  oats  or  corn. 

51 


52  BY-PRODUCT  FEEDING  STUFFS 

It  is  a  good  feed  for  horses  also  if  fed  with  corn  to 
add  bulk  to  the  heavy  corn  ration.  Bran  is  often  made 
into  a  mash  and  given  to  horses  as  a  laxative.  The  practice 
of  feeding  this  mash  regularly,  whether  the  animal  needs 
it  or  not,  is  now  looked  upon  with  disfavor. 

For  all  classes  of  young  and  growing  animals,  bran  is  one 
of  the  safest  and  best  of  feeds. 

Wheat  Middlings.  —  In  the  process  of  milling,  after  the 
bran  is  taken  off,  the  next  part  that  is  removed  is  known  as 
''  middHngs."  This  is  the  part  of  the  kernel  between  the 
coarse  bran  and  the  finer  flour  beneath.  Shorts  and  mid- 
dlings are  terms  used  interchangeably.  Middlings  are  high 
both  in  protein  and  mineral  matter,  being  somewhat  lower 
in  the  latter  than  bran.  When  middlings  are  clean  and  free 
from  mill  sweepings,  they  make  an  excellent  feeding  stuff, 
especially  valuable  for  hogs  when  mixed  with  ground  corn. 
They  are  not  so  good  as  bran  for  dairy  cows. 

Red  Dog,  or  Coarse  Feeding  Flour. —  This  material  is  finer 
and  whiter  than  middlings,  but  does  not  command  so  high 
a  price  as  flour  because  it  contains  many  wheat  germs  which 
give  to  it  a  dark  color.  When  this  material  can  be  bought 
for  a  reasonable  figure,  it  is  good  feed  for  hogs  if  mixed 
with  coarser  feeding  stuffs  and  fed  in  the  form  of  a  slop. 

Buckwheat  Middlings  and  Bran.  —  In  the  manufacture 
of  buckwheat  flour,  the  coarse  huUs  and  the  coarser  parts 
on  the  outside  of  the  grain  are  separated  from  the  finer  flour 
beneath.  Buckwheat  middHngs  form  a  valuable  feeding 
stuff.  When  they  can  be  obtained  free  from  woody  hulls, 
they  rank  in  value  with  wheat  bran  and  middHngs  as  a  feed- 
ing stuff  for  dairy  cattle.  When  the  hulls  are  mixed  with 
middlings,  buckwheat  bran  is  formed,  the  value  of  which  is 
lessened  as  the  proportion  of  hulls  is  increased. 


CERE.\L  FEEDS  53 

Screenings.  —  From  the  cleaning  of  the  wheat  before  it 
is  ground  and  from  material  swept  from  the  mill  floor,  a 
by-product  known  as  screenings  is  obtained.  This  ma- 
terial varies  in  feeding  value  according  to  the  relative 
amount  of  grain  and  waste  material  which  it  contains. 
Large  numbers  of  sheep  are  annually  fattened  upon  screen- 
ings as  part  of  their  diet. 

Rice  Bran.  —  In  the  milling  of  rice,  the  harsh  outside  hulls 
are  removed,  which,  with  some  of  the  material  adhering  to 
them,  form  rice  bran.  The  hulls  themselves  are  valueless 
as  a  feed.  The  value  of  the  bran  depends  upon  the  amount 
of  rice  meal  it  contains.  The  hulls  are  often  ground  fine 
and  mixed  with  the  meal  so  that  their  presence  cannot  be 
easily  detected.  In  purchasing  rice  by-products  one  should 
always  be  guided  by  the  chemical  analysis. 

BY-PRODUCTS   FROM  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF 
CEREAL   FOODS 

Oat  HuUs.  —  In  the  manufacture  of  oatmeal  the  outside 
husk  is  removed.  These  hulls  are  high  in  crude  fiber  and 
have  about  the  same  feeding  value  as  oat  straw.  They  are 
often  used  to  adulterate  ground  corn,  in  which  combination 
they  are  put  upon  the  market  as  ground  corn  and  oats. 
While  a  great  many  of  these  so-called  ground  corn  and  oats 
mixtures  are  good  feeds,  many  of  them  are  too  high  in  crude 
fiber  to  be  of  value. 

Barley  Feeds.  —  Pearl  barley  is  a  cereal  food  made  from 
the  barley  grain.  For  this  purpose  only  the  best  of  the 
grains  are  used  from  which  the  outside  hulls  are  removed. 
These  hulls  are  used  to  adulterate  the  poorer  grains,  unfit 
for  pearling  purposes,  and  the  ground  combination  forms  a 
barley  feed.     The  hulls  may  also  be  mixed  with  other  grains 


54  BY-PRODUCT  FEEDING  STUFFS 

and  the  combination  sold  as  mixed  feeds.     These  barley 
feeds  therefore  vary  greatly  in  feeding  value. 

Hominy  Feeds.  —  Hominy  is  made  from  corn.  Only  the 
best  grains  are  used  and  these  must  grade  up  to  a  certain  size. 
From  the  select  grains  the  outside  hulls  and  tips  are  removed. 
The  coarse  tips  and  seed  coats  and  a  great  many  small  ker- 
nels are  left  as  by-products.  These  materials  are  mixed 
together  in  various  ways  and  sold  under  a  great  variety  of 
trade  names  such  as  hominy  chop,  and  hominy  feed.  Their 
feeding  value  is  shown  by  chemical  analysis. 

BY-PRODUCT    FEEDS    FROM    THE    MANUFACTURE 
OF   STARCH  AND   GLUCOSE 

Corn  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch  and  glucose. 
Since  only  the  starch  grains  are  desired  by  the  manufac- 
turer, the  by-product  materials  are  made  up  of  the  hull,  the 
tips,  the  germs,  and  the  gluten  portions  of  the  corn  kernel. 
The  feeding  stuffs  thus  obtained  appear  below. 

Corn  Bran.  —  This  material  is  made  up  of  the  outside 
layer  of  the  corn  grain  and  is  removed  in  the  earHest  part  of 
the  starch-making  process.  It  contains  a  high  percentage  of 
crude  fiber  and  mineral  matter.  It  does  not  equal  wheat 
bran  in  feeding  value,  and  is  generally  used  to  adulterate 
other  by-products  to  form  some  of  the  so-called  mixed  feeds, 
sold  under  the  names  of  sugar  feeds  and  starch  feeds.  It  is 
also  used  to  mix  with  the  gluten  meal  to  form  gluten  feed. 

Germ  Meal.  —  In  another  part  of  the  starch-making 
process  the  germs  of  the  corn  are  removed.  These  germs 
are  ground  and  the  oil  is  pressed  out,  leaving  germ  oil  cake. 
This  ground  cake  forms  germ  oil  meal,  a  feeding  stuff  high 
in  protein,  mineral  matter,  and  fat.  It  is  valuable  to  mix 
with  some  of  the  coarser  concentrates,  but  when  left  in  stor- 


PULP  FEEDS  55 

age  for  too  long  a  period,  it  may  become  rancid  and  unpal- 
atable. 

Gluten  Meal  and  Gluten  Feed.  —  The  gluten  residue  of 
the  corn  kernel  is  rich  in  protein.  When  this  is  ground  it 
forms  gluten  meal  which  is  almost  too  concentrated  to  feed 
alone.  The  manufacturer  mixes  corn  bran  with  the  meal 
and  forms  gluten  feed,  one  of  the  best  feeds  for  dairy  cows. 
The  feeding  value  of  the  gluten  feed  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  bran  it  contains. 

Sugar  and  Starch  Feeds.  —  These  are  mixtures  prepared 
in  various  ways  from  the  by-products  obtainable  from  starch 
and  glucose  factories.  Their  feeding  values  are  variable, 
and  in  purchasing,  the  feeder  should  insist  upon  relatively 
high  protein  and  low  crude  fiber  content. 

BY-PRODUCT    FEEDS    FROM    THE    MANUFACTURE 
OF   SUGAR 

Ordinary  sugar  is  made  from  sugar  cane  and  sugar  beets. 
Some  of  the  by-products  of  the  sugar  industry  are  useful  for 
feeding  purposes. 

Beet  Pulp.  —  In  the  manufacture  of  beet  sugar  there  is 
a  by-product  known  as  beet  pulp,  consisting  largely  of  crude 
fiber.  It  also  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  protein 
and  mineral  matter.  In  the  wet  form  it  is  a  wholesome  and 
valuable  feed  for  dairy  and  beef  cattle.  When  fed  in  the 
open,  in  cold  weather,  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent 
freezing.  It  should  be  fed  in  warm  stables,  and  all  feeding 
receptacles  should  be  kept  fresh  and  clean.  In  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  beet  sugar  factories  it  is  often  stored  in 
silos.  Most  of  the  beet  pulp  is  dried,  however,  in  which 
form  it  can  be  readily  transported,  and  the  danger  of  freez- 
ing and  spoiling  is  reduced  to  a  minimum.     In  the  dried 


56  BY-PRODUCT  FEEDING  STUFFS 

form  the  pulp  can  be  stored  the  same  as  bran  or  any  other 
dry  feed.  Dried  pulp  is  a  good  feed  for  horses  and  sheep  as 
well  as  for  beef  and  dairy  cattle. 

Molasses  Feeds.  —  The  hquid  drawn  off  during  the 
crystallization  of  sugar  is  known  as  molasses.  The  mo- 
lasses from  sugar  cane  is  sweet  and  palatable  and  makes  a 
good  feeding  stuff.  In  the  South,  where  this  material  is 
obtained  in  large  quantities,  it  is  fed  freely  to  mules  and  is 
considered  to  have  feeding  value  equal  to  corn.  A  great 
deal  of  black  molasses  is  used  for  feeding  beef  cattle  that 
are  being  fitted  for  show,  and  very  good  results  are  ob- 
tained from  its  use. 

Molasses  obtained  from  the  sugar  beet  is  not  so  palatable 
as  that  obtained  from  the  cane  plant.  It  is  often  mixed 
with  other  feed  stuffs  and  the  mixtures  are  called  molasses 
feeds.  These  feeds  vary  greatly  in  feeding  value,  depending 
upon  the  quality  of  the  materials  with  which  the  molasses 
is  mixed.  Alfalfa  is  sometimes  mixed  with  molasses. 
If  the  alfalfa  is  good  the  mixture  is  good,  but  it  often 
happens  that  the  alfalfa  is  poor  and  then  the  mixture  is 
not  so  good  as  alfalfa  hay,  even  though  it  does  contain 
molasses  and  may  cost  more.  Molasses  is  sometimes  used 
to  act  as  carrier  and  sweetener  for  practically  worthless 
material.  Purchasers  of  molasses  mixtures  should  be  care- 
ful to  buy  only  those  feeds  whose  feeding  value  is  known. 

BY-PRODUCT   FEEDS   FROM   THE   EXTRACTION 
OF  OILS 

Some  plants  produce  seeds  high  in  oil  of  great  commercial 
value.  From  flaxseed,  linseed  oil,  used  largely  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  paint,  is  obtained.  This  oil  commands  a  high 
price  and  thus  makes  the  manufacture  of  linseed  oil  a  lucra- 


COTTONSEED   FEEDS  57 

tive  industry.  From  the  seed  of  the  cotton  plant  is  derived 
cottonseed  oil,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  and  for 
other  purposes.  Commercial  oils  are  also  obtained  from 
corn  and  peanuts. 

Flax,  cotton,  and  peanut  seeds  are  not  only  high  in  oil 
content  but  are  also  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter. 
After  the  oil  has  been  extracted  from  these  seeds,  the  by- 
product materials  form  feeding  substances  that  are  the 
heaviest  carriers  of  protein  of  all  commercial  feeds. 

Cottonseed  Meal.  —  After  the  extraction  of  cottonseed 
oil  the  cake  remaining  is  called  cottonseed  cake.  If  this 
cake  is  ground,  cottonseed  meal  is  formed.  The  cake  is 
sometimes  merely  broken  into  nut  form. 

Cottonseed  cake  or  meal  is  one  of  the  cheapest  and  best 
carriers  of  protein.  It  can  be  fed  in  limited  amounts  to 
all  classes  of  animals.  For  the  dairy  cow  it  is  a  satisfactory 
feed  and  gives  excellent  results  when  fed  in  small  amounts 


Fig.   16.  —  Fancy  cuts  of  beef  from  animals  whose  feed  contained  cottonseed  meal  as 
the  principal  concentrate. 

in  connection  with  a  good  grain  ration.  For  feeding  steers 
it  is  now  conceded  to  be  one  of  the  best  high  protein  feeds, 
when  fed  with  corn  as  part  of  the  ration.  Cottonseed  meal 
can  be  used  to  replace  some  of  the  grain  in  the  ration  of  the 
horse  with  good  results.  In  sheep  feeding,  cottonseed  cake 
can  be  utilized  and  the  fattening  ration  is  often  improved 
by  introducing  a  limited  amount  of  this  feed. 


58 


BY-PRODUCT  FEEDING  STUFFS 


Cottonseed  Poisoning.  —  Hogs  have  often  been  poisoned 
by  being  fed  upon  cottonseed  meal.  The  usual  advice 
given  is  not  to  feed  cottonseed  meal  to  hogs.  Cattle  have 
been  known  to  go  bUnd  after  having  been  fed  upon  this 
material  for  a  loo-day  period,  and  in  instances  where  fed 
too  long  death  has  ensued. 

Fed  in  limited  amounts,  cottonseed  meal  is  a  safe 
feed  and  should  be  more  generally  used.     If  fresh  it  has 


Fig.    17.  —  Cattie  fed  on  shelled  corn,  linseed  oil  lueal,  shuck  uuin,  and  clover  hay. 

a  bright  yellow  color.  Old  feed  that  has  been  long  stored  or 
that  has  been  wet  and  become  moldy  should  not  be  fed. 
From  2  to  4  pounds  daily  in  the  rations  of  either  the  dairy 
cow  or  the  steer  are  perfectly  safe  amounts. 

Linseed  Oil  Meal.  — ■  There  are  two  methods  of  extracting 
Hnseed  oil  from  the  seed  of  flax.  In  the  old  process,  the  oil 
is  extracted  by  pressure,  and  in  the  new  process,  the  oil  is 
dissolved  out  by  treating  the  ground  flaxseed  with  naphtha. 


LINSEED   FEEDS  59 

Most  of  the  linseed  oil  now  on  the  market  is  obtained  by  the 
old  process,  so  that  old  process  oil  meal  is  the  kind  most 
in  use  as  a  stock  feed.  The  new  process  extracts  the  oil 
somewhat  more  completely  than  does  the  old,  so  that  the 
old  process  oil  meal  is  somewhat  higher  in  fat  and  slightly 
lower  in  protein  content.  In  extracting  the  oil  by  the  new 
process,  however,  the  seed  is  heated  by  steam  to  drive  off 
the  naphtha.  This  heating  lowers  the  digestibility  of  the 
protein  so  that  the  amount  of  digestible  protein  in  the  two 
feeds  is  nearly  the  same.  Linseed  meal  is  a  valuable  feed 
on  any  stock  farm,  but  it  is  too  rich  and  high  priced  to  feed 
in  large  amounts.  Its  high  content  of  protein  makes  it  an 
excellent  feed  to  add  to  rations  low  in  this  nutrient.  Its 
high  content  of  oil  gives  to  it  a  mild  laxative  effect. 

For  dairy  cows,  about  ten  per  cent  of  Unseed  meal  in  the 
grain  ration  increases  the  flow  of  milk  and  improves  the  con- 
dition of  the  animal.  For  young  calves  a  small  amount  of 
oil  meal  improves  the  quality  of  the  ration.  Breeding 
animals  should  receive  a  small  amount  of  the  feed  in  the 
ration.  Animals  that  are  being  fitted  for  show  or  sale  are 
given  an  added  appearance  of  thrift  and  finish  by  the  use  of 
oil  meal.  A  small  amount  of  this  feed  will  improve  the 
rations  of  both  sheep  and  hogs. 

BY-PRODUCT    FEEDS    FROM   SLAUGHTERING 
OF  ANIMALS 

The  principal  by-products  of  the  great  slaughtering 
houses  furnished  to  the  feeder  of  live  stock  are  tankage, 
dried  blood,  and  meat  meal.  These  feeds  are  all  rich  in 
protein  and  some  of  them  are  high  in  mineral  matter. 

Tankage.  —  Tankage  is  prepared  by  boiling  down  refuse 
material  from  slaughtered  animals  in  order  to  secure  the 


6o  BY-PRODUCT  FEEDING  STUFFS 

oil.  After  the  oil  has  been  removed  the  remaining  material 
is  dried  so  that  it  may  be  shipped,  stored,  and  kept  over 
long  periods  of  time.  The  poorer  grades  of  tankage  are 
sold  as  fertilizer,  and  those  portions  that  do  not  contain  any 
of  the  refuse  of  the  digestive  tract  are  sold  for  feed  stuffs. 
Tankage  is  especially  valuable  for  feeding  young  pigs. 
It  is  so  high  in  protein  that  it  should  not  furnish  more  than 
lo  per  cent  of  the  ration.  It  is  an  economical  feed  in  spite 
of  its  high  price.  Farmers  who  have  no  skim  milk  to  feed  to 
young  pigs  should  make  large  use  of  tankage. 

Blood  Meal.  —  Dried  blood  meal  is  also  very  high  in 
protein  material  and  is  valuable  to  add  in  small  amounts 
to  the  ration  of  the  pig  and  calf.  Used  sparingly  it  acts  as 
a  corrective  of  stomach  disorders. 

Meat  Meal.  —  Meat  meal  obtained  from  refuse  scraps 
may  be  fed  to  advantage  to  young  animals.  Because  of  its 
richness  it  should  be  fed  sparingly.  All  of  the  slaughter- 
house by-products  that  are  sold  as  feed  stuffs  are  so 
thoroughly  sterilized  by  the  high  temperature  to  which  they 
are  subjected  during  the  process  of  manufacture  that  no 
contagious  diseases  can  be  contracted  from  their  use. 

BY-PRODUCT   FEEDING  STUFFS  FROM  THE  DAIRY 
INDUSTRY 

Milk  is  nature's  food  for  the  young  animal,  and  normal 
milk  contains  all  the  nutrients  in  correct  proportions  for 
its  proper  development.  The  nutrients  in  milk  are  highly 
digestible.  The  first  milk  secreted  by  the  dam  after  the 
young  animal  has  been  born  is  called  colostrum.  It  is  high 
in  protein  and  has  a  laxative  effect  upon  the  young  animal, 
its  purpose  being  to  cleanse  the  digestive  tract.  After  about 
five  days  the  milk  of  the  cow  is  in  normal  condition. 


DAIRY  FEEDS  6i 

Milk  contains  a  sugar  called  milk  sugar  which  has  the 
same  composition  as  cane  sugar. 

The  commercial  value  of  cows'  milk  is  generally  estab- 
lished by  its  fat  content,  which  may  vary  from  3  per  cent 
or  less  to  over  5  per  cent.  The  fat  content  varies  with 
individual  animals,  the  stage  of  lactation,  and  the  progress 
of  the  milking.  The  fat  content  of  milk  increases  as  the 
lactation  period  advances,  and  last  drawn  milk  is  richer 
in  fat  than  first. 

At  the  present  time  butter  fat  commands  such  a  high 
price  that  few  people  can  afford  to  feed  whole  milk  except 
in  those  rare  cases  where  it  is  fed  to  choice  young  animals 
that  are  kept  for  breeding  or  show  purposes. 

Skim  Milk.  —  Milk  from  which  the  fat  has  been  removed 
is  proportionately  higher  in  protein  and  ash  than  whole 
milk.  It  is  valuable  for  rearing  calves,  and  is  the  cheapest 
and  most  reliable  feed  for  this  purpose.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  feeds  for  young  pigs.  Five  or  six  pounds  of  skim 
milk  has  the  same  feeding  value  as  one  pound  of  corn. 
Skim  milk  may  also  be  fed  to  young  colts  after  weaning, 
with  good  results. 

Buttermilk.  —  Buttermilk  is  the  by-product  from  butter 
manufacture.  It  has  practically  the  same  composition  as 
skim  milk,  and  if  the  material  has  not  been  too  badly 
diluted,  as  is  often  done  at  creameries,  it  is  equal  to  skim 
milk  as  a  feed  for  pigs. 

Whey.  —  Whey  is  the  by-product  derived  from  cheese 
factories  and  it  is  only  with  difficulty  that  thrifty  calves  can 
be  reared  upon  it.  For  pigs  it  has  about  half  the  feeding 
value  of  skim  milk  and  should  be  fed  in  connection  with  a 
good  grain  ration.  Whey  should  be  fed  fresh.  If  exposed 
to  the  sun  in  filthy  tanks  it  is  not  suitable  for  feeding. 


62  BY-PRODUCT  FEEDING  STUFFS 

CONDIMENTAL   STOCK  FOODS 

Condimental  stock  foods  are  said  by  their  manufac- 
turers to  have  peculiar  medicinal  properties  not  possessed 
by  the  common  run  of  feeding  stuffs.  They  contain  small 
amounts  of  various  drugs  and  herbs,  which  when  properly 
given  under  the  direction  of  a  qualified  veterinarian, 
produce  good  results  with  sick  animals  or  those  other- 
wise out  of  condition. 

The  Value  of  Stock  Foods.  —  Various  experiments  have 
been  made  with  different  stock  foods  upon  all  classes  of 
farm  animals  at  the  several  experiment  stations,  and  in 
no  instance  have  these  foods  equaled  the  claims  made  for 
them.  Gains  made  upon  rations  containing  these  materials 
were  always  more  expensive  than  those  made  upon  rations 
that  did  not  contain  them. 

If  animals  need  condiments,  stimulants,  or  condition 
powders,  which  is  seldom  the  case  if  they  are  properly  fed, 
it  is  better  to  consult  a  competent  veterinarian  than  to 
resort  to  the  use  of  expensive  cure-alls. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Make  out  a  list  of  high  protein  by-product  feeds. 

2.  What  by-product  feeds  need  to  be  purchased  with  caution 
on  account  of  great  variation  in  their  feeding  value? 

3.  Why  may  not  roots  form  the  bulk  of  a  ration? 

4.  What  combination  of  feeds  would  make  an  ideal  ration 
for  horses?     For  milk  cows?     For  pigs? 

HOME    PROJECT 

Test  one  of  the  combinations  of  feeds  on  some  of  the  animals 
at  home,  keeping  accurate  record  of  cost  and  results. 


CHAPTER  V 
HOW   THE   ANIMAL   USES   ITS   FEED 

Rations.  —  A  ration  is  the  amount  of  feed  given  to  an 
animal  in  twenty-four  hours,  irrespective  of  the  time  of 
feeding  or  into  how  many  portions  this  feed  is  divided. 
A  balanced  ration  is  one  that  suppHes  protein,  carbo- 
hydrates, and  fats  in  the  proper  amounts  and  proportions 
so  that  there  is  neither  excess  nor  deficiency.  A  mainte- 
nance ration  is  one  that  will  keep  an  animal  at  constant 
weight. 

Feeding  for  Maintenance.  —  Feeding  for  maintenance 
means  feeding  so  that  the  animal  will  neither  gain  nor  lose 
in  weight.  The  maintenance  ration  should  furnish  ma- 
terial sufificient  to  repair  broken  down  tissue;  should 
supply  energy  for  carrying  on  the  vital  functions,  such  as 
breathing,  digestion,  absorption,  and  assimilation;  and 
should  produce  sufficient  heat  for  the  animal  body. 

Roughages  Preferred  for  Maintenance.  —  As  a  rule, 
roughages  are  more  economical  for  maintenance  rations 
than  are  concentrates.  If  the  animal  is  doing  no  work 
there  is  not  much  breaking  down  of  tissue,  but  the  normal 
heat  of  the  body  must  be  maintained.  Idle  horses 
and  cattle  are  more  economically  maintained  on  a 
ration  consisting  mostly  of  coarse  roughages  than  on  less 
bulky  but  more  expensive  concentrates.  The  ration  does 
not  need  to  contain  a  great  deal  of  protein  to  supply  the 

63 


64  HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES   ITS   FEED 

demands  of  the  mature  animal  at  rest,  and  the  bulkier 
carbohydrates  furnish  sufficient  heat. 

Relation  of  Size  to  Maintenance.  —  For  animals  of  the 
same  age,  class,  tx-pe,  and  kind,  the  larger  the  animal,  the 
larger  must  be  the  maintenance  ration.  The  protein  re- 
quirements vary  directly  with  the  weight  of  the  animal, 
because  the  muscular  tissue  varies  directly  with  the 
weight.  The  most  of  the  heat  produced  in  the  animal 
body  comes  from  the  carbohydrates  and  fats  in  the  feed 
stuff  and  escapes  from  the  surface  of  the  body.  A  large 
animal  has  proportionally  less  body  surface  than  a  smaller 
animal  of  the  same  class  and  type.  The  large  animal 
thus  requires  somewhat  less  carbohydrate  and  fat  ma- 
terial in  proportion  to  its  weight  than  does  the  small 
animal  of  the  same  type. 

Other  Factors  in  Maintenance.  —  The  fat  animal  re- 
quires a  higher  maintenance  ration  than  the  thin  animal 
because  it  carries  greater  weight,  and  added  weight  re- 
quires added  energy  to  move  it  about.  Under  ordinary 
conditions,  the  higher  the  external  temperature,  the 
smaller  the  maintenance  ration,  because  there  is  less 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  body  surface.  Nervous 
animals  are  harder  to  maintain  than  quiet  ones.  Animals 
also  vary  in  their  capacities  to  digest  and  assimilate 
food.  Other  things  being  equal,  animals  of  the  same 
general  type  make  about  the  same  comparative  uses  of 
the  feed  given  to  them,  regardless  of  the  breed  to  which 
they  belong.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  a  young 
animal  at  constant  weight  during  its  period  of  growth. 

Feeding  for  Meat  Production.  —  Feeding  for  meat  pro- 
duction accomplishes  two  ends,  growth  and  fattening. 
Growth  prepares  the   framework   and   fattening  increases 


MEAT  PRODUCTION  65 

the  weight  and  improves  the  quality  of  flesh,  making  the 
meat  more  juicy,  tender,  and  nutritious. 

Growth  and  Fattening.  —  During  growth,  the  muscular 
fibers   increase    in   number,   length,   and   thickness.     The 


Fig.   18.  —  Cuts  of  pork  from  pigs  fed  rations  rich  in  proteins.     These  cuts  have  less 
fat  than  those  shown  in  Fig.  19. 

skeleton  and  all  the  organs  of  the  body  increase  in  size 
and  capacity  to  do  work.  In  fattening  there  may  be  a 
slight  growth  in  the  muscular  tissues,  but  during  the  fat- 
tening process  the  greater  part  of  the  gain  in  weight  is 
due  to  an  increase  in  the  amount  of  fatty  tissue.     Fat  is 


Fig.   19.  —  Cuts  of  pork  from  pigs  fed  fat-producing  foods. 

deposited  between  the  muscular  fibers  and  the  layers  of 
muscle,  beneath  the  skin  of  the  animal  and  around  the 
internal  organs. 

The  quantity,  quality,  and  palatability  of  the  feed  has 
much  to  do  with  the  amount  of  fat  deposited  upon  the 
animal's  body.     Only  that  over  and  above  maintenance 

T.    AND    L.      ANIMAL   HUSB. 5 


66  HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES  ITS  FEED 

requirements  is  used  for  making  fat.  An  older  animal 
will  fatten  more  readily  than  will  a  young  one,  because 
the  young  animal  grows,  while  the  old  one  only  lays  on 
fat.  The  quiet  animal  fattens  more  readily  than  the  nerv- 
ous, restless  animal,  because  less  of  the  food  is  wasted 
in  needless  exercise.  The  breed  of  an  animal  has  little  ef- 
fect upon  fattening  quality,  but  the  t>^e  has  an  important 
bearing  upon  the  quality  of  meat  produced.  If  the  climate 
is  very  cold,  shelter  from  strong  cold  winds  is  an  aid  in 
fattening,  as  less  food  will  be  required  to  keep  the  body 
warm.  Thrifty  steers  can  stand  steady  cold  weather  and 
fatten  better  than  in  weather  so  warm  as  to  cause  loss 
of  appetite.  The  hog,  having  a  lighter  coat  and  taking 
less  exercise,  needs  greater  protection  from  the  cold  than 
does  the  steer. 

Effect  of  Water,  Light,  and  Air.  —  The  fattening  animal 
should  have  free  access  to  an  abundance  of  good,  pure,  and 
fresh  water.  Water  helps  to  regulate  the  temperature  of 
the  animal  body  and  is  necessary  to  carry  on  the  increased 
activity  in  the  life  processes  due  to  fattening.  Sunlight  is 
necessary  to  the  growing  animal,  in  order  that  its  body 
and  organs  may  develop  normally.  For  a  brief  period 
an  animal  will  fatten  more  rapidly  and  cheaply  in  dark 
quarters  than  in  light,  although  light  is  essential  to  health. 
Darkened  quarters  prevent  annoyance  from  flies  and  keep 
the  animal  in  a  quieter  condition.  They  fatten  better 
when  quietness  prevails.  Regularity  in  time  of  feeding 
and  the  amount  and  kind  of  feed  given  are  also  important 
factors.  If  changes,  either  in  the  feed  or  in  the  conditions 
surrounding  the  animals  are  to  be  made,  they  should  be 
made  gradually.  A  changing  period  under  any  circum- 
stances is  always  a  losing  period. 


ECONOMICAL  USE  OF  FOOD  67 

Feeding  for  Milk  Production.  —  Feeding  for  the  pro- 
duction of  milk  differs  from  feeding  for  the  production  of 
body  fat.  The  ration  for  fat  production  needs  to  supply 
only  sufficient  protein  and  mineral  matter  to  repair  waste 
and  build  up  a  small  amount  of  new  tissue.  The  bulk  of 
the  body  fat  is  built  up  from  the  carbohydrate  and  fat  ma- 
terial in  the  ration  in  excess  of  the  amount  necessary  for 
maintenance.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  production  of 
milk  there  is  the  constant  need  for  protein  and  mineral 
matter  in  the  milk  which  the  cow  secretes.  Considerable 
protein  and  mineral  matter  are  therefore  necessary  in 
the  ration  to  supply  the  demands  of  the  milk-producing 
animal. 

The  Dairy  Cow  an  Economical  Food  Producer.  —  The 
dairy  cow  makes  the  most  economical  use  of  the  food  given 
her.  The  constant  outlet  of  milk  prevents  her  system 
from  becoming  clogged,  as  in  the  case  of  the  steer  deposit- 
ing fat.  There  is  perhaps  more  variation  in  the  ability 
of  different  cows  to  produce  milk  than  in  the  ability  of 
steers  to  lay  on  fat.  Several  factors  cause  a  variation  in 
the  cost  of  producing  milk.  In  the  same  herd  one  cow  may 
make  a  good  profit,  while  another,  under  the  same  con- 
ditions, may  show  actual  loss.  While  a  competent  judge 
may  be  able  to  determine  quite  accurately  from  external 
appearances  the  fattening  qualities  of  a  steer,  only  an  ap- 
proximation of  the  ability  of  the  cow  to  produce  milk  can 
be  so  made. 

Care  as  Essential  as  Feed.  —  The  amount  and  character 
of  feed  given  is  a  large  factor  in  milk  production.  Cows 
that  are  expected  to  produce  heavily  must  be  Hberally  fed. 
The  ration  of  the  cow  should  be  palatable  and  contain  a 
liberal  supply  of  protein  and  mineral  matter. 


68  HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES  ITS  FEED 

While  exercise  requires  more  feed,  a  certain  amount  of 
exercise  is  necessary  to  keep  the  animal  in  good  physical 
condition.  The  dairy  cow  requires  a  higher  and  more  uni- 
form temperature  than  the  beef  animal  because  she  has 
no  protecting  layer  of  fat.  The  skin  and  hair  of  the  dairy 
cow  are  also  thinner  than  on  beef  animals.  Milk  secretion 
is  controlled  by  the  nervous  system  of  the  animal,  and 
any  shock  to  the  nervous  system  such  as  that  resulting 
from  exposure  to  cold  cuts  down  milk  production. 

Importance  of  Water.  —  Dairy  cows  require  large  quan- 
tities of  water,  because  milk  contains  about  87  per  cent  of 
water.  More  water  is  also  necessary  to  regulate  the  heat 
of  the  body.  The  dry  cow  requires  only  about  65  per  cent 
as  much  water  as  the  cow  giving  milk.  The  water  supply 
should  be  fresh,  pure,  and  easily  accessible.  Some  cow 
stables  are  now  equipped  with  drinking  cups  so  that  with- 
out effort  the  cows  can  obtain  drinking  water  at  will. 

Feeding  for  Work  Production.  —  Within  certain  limits, 
the  working  capacity  of  the  animal  depends  upon  the 
amount  of  food  consumed  over  and  above  the  amount 
necessary  for  maintenance.  Rations  for  work  animals 
should  be  such  as  will  furnish  the  greatest  amount  of 
energy.  Concentrated  feeds  rich  in  digestible  nutrients 
supply  this  in  most  convenient  form.  Bulky  feeds  that 
require  a  great  deal  of  energy  to  digest  leave  but  little 
excess  to  be  utilized  in  doing  work. 

Nutritive  Ratio.  —  The  nutritive  ratio  is  the  ratio  that 
exists  between  the  sum  of  the  digestible  fats  and  carbohy- 
drates and  the  digestible  protein  in  the  ration  or  feeding 
stuff.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
digestible  fat  by  2^,  adding  the  product  to  the  digestible 
carbohydrate    material,    and     dividing    the   sum  by   the 


RATION  OF  THE  YOUNG  ANIMAL  69 

amount  of  digestible  protein.  The  quotient  derived  will 
be  the  second  term  of  the  ratio  of  which  the  first  term  is  i. 
For  example,  dent  corn  contains  7.8  pounds  of  di- 
gestible protein,  66.8  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates, 
and  4.3  pounds  of  digestible  fat  in  each  100  pounds.  The 
nutritive  ratio  of  dent  corn  is  found  in  the  following  way : 

4-3  X  24  -h — ._  ^     g      'pj^g  nutritive  ratio  of  corn  is  then 

7.8 
said  to  be  I  :  9.8. 

Rations  that  are  relatively  rich  in  protein  are  called 
narrow  rations  and  those  that  are  poor  in  protein  are  called 
wide  rations.  Cottonseed  meal  has  the  narrow  nutritive 
ratio  of  i  :  1.14;  rye  straw  has  the  wide  ratio  of  i :  57.8; 
and  oats  has  the  medium  nutritive  ratio  of  i  :  5.49. 

How  Rations  should  Vary.  —  Youth  is  the  period  of  the 
animal's  life  when  normal  development  and  growth  take 
place.  To  secure  the  maximum  growth  the  ration  of  the 
young  animal  should  supply  sufficient  quantities  of  protein 
and  mineral  matter. 

The  mature  animal  does  not  need  such  a  high  propor- 
tion of  protein  and  mineral  matter  in  its  ration,  because 
growth  is  complete.  Sufiicient  protein  to  repair  waste  is 
all  that  is  essential.  Because  carbohydrate  and  fat  ma- 
terials are  cheaper  than  are  protein  and  mineral  matter, 
it  is  more  economical  to  feed  the  mature  animal  a  wider 
ration  than  that  fed  to  the  young  animal. 

The  Needs  of  the  Young  Animal.  —  In  the  corn  belt 
young  animals  are  often  raised  to  maturity  on  rations  de- 
ficient in  protein  and  mineral  matter.  Young  pigs  suffer 
most  from  this  lack.  The  rations  of  calves  usually  con- 
tain roughage  materials  higher  in  mineral  content.  Lime 
and  phosphorus  are  the  mineral  constituents  needed  in 


70  HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES  ITS  FEED 

large  amounts  by  young  animals.  These  substances  may 
be  supplied  by  feeding  such  feeds  as  alfalfa  and  clover 
which  are  high  in  lime,  and  bran  and  middlings  which  are 
high  in  phosphorus,  or  feeding  ground  rock  phosphate,  bone 
ash,  and  calcium  phosphate  in  mineral  forms.  Charcoal 
is  valuable  for  hogs  and  should  be  supplied  to  them  in  a 
trough  mixed  with  salt.  Common  salt  is  a  mineral  sub- 
stance which  all  animals  crave  and  free  access  to  it  should 
be  allowed. 

Young  ruminants  need  roughage.  Frequent  attempts 
have  been  made  to  raise  calves  to  maturity  on  purely 
concentrated  rations,  but  without  success.  Non-ruminants 
may  grow  to  maturity  on  concentrated  feeds  alone. 

Experiments  have  proven  that  milk  with  a  medium 
amount  of  fat  is  better  for  young  animals  than  milk  that 
is  abnormally  high  in  fat.  The  milk  of  the  average  cow 
has  only  a  medium  fat  content,  and  the  calf  grows  and 
does  well  on  it.  Some  of  our  special  dairy  breeds  have 
been  developed  to  produce  milk  rich  in  fat,  but  the  mineral 
and  protein  materials  are  not  correspondingly  high,  and 
calves  do  not  thrive  so  well  when  fed  on  such  milk. 

Feeding  Standards.  —  It  is  not  long  since  the  feeding 
of  animals  was  considered  httle  more  than  the  work  of  a 
common  artisan.  Cows,  sheep,  and  horses  were  either  al- 
lowed to  graze  the  range  or  were  given  feeds  at  hand  with- 
out thought  as  to  their  value.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
last  century,  science  invaded  this  field  and  live  stock  feed- 
ing became  a  science  as  well  as  an  art.  In  time,  standards 
were  formulated  setting  forth  the  feed  requirements  of 
different  classes  of  animals  kept  under  different  conditions. 
The  first  standard  appeared  in  1810,  and  consisted  of  a 
table  in  which  were  shown  the  amounts  of  different  feeding 


FEEDING  STANDARDS  71 

stuffs  necessary  to  furnish  the  equivalent  feeding  value 
of  100  pounds  of  meadow  hay.  The  next  standard  of  im- 
portance was  based  upon  the  total  amounts  of  protein, 
carbohydrates,  and  fats  in  the  feed  stuffs. 

The  Wolff  Standards.  —  The  feeding  standards  of  Dr. 
Emil  von  Wolff,  a  German  scientist,  are  based  upon  the 
amounts  of  digestible  protein,  carbohydrate,  and  fat  ma- 
terial required  by  various  farm  animals  under  different 
conditions.  The  first  presentation  of  these  standards  was 
made  in  1864,  and  they  appeared  for  the  first  time  in 
America  in  1874.  These  standards  are  now  called  the 
Wolff-Lehmann  standards  because  of  the  assistance  of 
Dr.  C.  Lehmann,  a  pupil  of  Wolff,  in  presenting  them  to 
the  pubhc.  The  Wolff-Lehmann  standards  are  widely 
used  because  they  are  positive  and  easily  understood. 

Calculating  Rations  by  the  Use  of  Feeding  Standards.  — 
It  is  practically  impossible  to  get  any  one  feed  stuff  that 
will  supply  all  nutrients  in  the  amounts  and  proportions 
that  will  properly  nourish  the  animal  without  deficiency 
or  waste.  Some  of  our  feed  stuffs  are  high  in  protein. 
The  use  of  such  a  feed  alone  would  cause  a  waste  of  protein. 
Other  feeds  are  high  in  carbohydrates  and  fat.  To  get 
the  required  amount  of  protein  from  such  a  feed  would 
necessitate  the  loss  of  non-protein  material.  If  the  feeds 
are  introduced  into  the  rations  in  the  proper  proportions, 
the  deficiency  of  protein  in  one  feed  will  be  counterbal- 
anced by  the  excess  in  another,  and  a  properly  balanced 
ration  will  result. 

A  proper  mixture  of  feeds  always  gives  better  results  than 
any  single  feed.  Palatability  and  adaptability  to  the  animal 
are  also  good  qualities.  A  certain  amount  of  succulent  feed 
should  be  introduced  into  a  ration  as  an  aid  to  digestion, 


72 


HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES  ITS  FEED 


The  following  table  sets  forth  the  number  of  pounds  of 
total  dry  matter,  digestible  protein,  carbohydrates,  and 
fat  necessary  for  various  farm  animals. 


WOLFF-LEHMAXN   FEEDING  STANDARDS   MODIFIED 


Pounds  per  Day 

PER    1000 

Lb.  Live  Weight 

Animal 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Dry 

Matter 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Nutri- 

Protein 

Fat 

tive 
Ratio:  i 

Oxen 

At  rest 

i8 

0.7 

8.0 

0.1 

11.8 

At  heavy  work     . 

28 

2.8 

13-0 

0.8 

5-3 

Dairy  Cows 

II  lb.  of  milk  daily 

25 

1.6 

lO.O 

0.3 

6.7 

22  lb.  of  milk  daily 

29 

2.5 

13-0 

0.5 

6.0 

Horses 

Light  work      .     . 

20 

1-5 

9-5 

0.4 

7.0 

Hea\'y  work 

26 

2-5 

13-3 

0.8 

6.0 

Breeding  Ewes 

With  lambs 

25 

2.9 

15.0 

0.5 

5-6 

Brood  Sows    . 

22 

2-5 

15-5 

0.4 

6.6 

Fattening  Cattle 

First  period 

30 

2.5 

15.0 

0.5 

6.5 

Last  period 

26 

2.7 

15.0 

0.7 

6.2 

Fattening  Swine 

First  period 

36 

4-5 

25.0. 

0.7 

5-9 

Last  period 

25 

2.7 

18.0 

0.4 

7.0 

Gro^^-ing  Cattle 

Young  calves 

23 

4.0 

I3-0 

2.0 

4-5 

Yearlings    . 

27 

2.0 

12.5 

0-5 

6.8 

Growing  Sheep 

Young  lambs 

26 

4-4 

15-5 

0.9 

4.0 

Yearlings    . 

23 

2.2 

12.6 

0-5 

6.3 

Growing  Pigs 

At  weaning  time 

44 

7.6 

28.0 

1.9 

4.0 

At  8  mos.  age  . 

30 

3-6 

20.5 

0.4 

6.0 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  standards  are  made  for  1000 
pounds  live  weight  of  the  animal,  and  call  for  material 


PLANNING  A  RATION  73 

sufficient  for  twenty-four  hours.  If  animals  are  heavier 
in  weight,  the  standard  can  be  changed  to  vary  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  live  weight  of  the  animal;  the  nob 
pound  animal  requiring  10  per  cent  more  and  the  900 
pound  animal  requiring  10  per  cent  less  than  the  amount 
given  in  the  table.  The  250  pound  hog  will  require  i  of  the 
amounts  set  forth  in  the  standard.  In  the  Appendix  will 
be  found  the  number  of  pounds  of  total  dry  matter,  di- 
gestible protein,  carbohydrates,  and  fats  in  feed  stuffs. 
If  the  feeds  are  combined  so  that  the  sum  of  the  nutrients 
they  furnish  in  combination  corresponds  to  the  number 
of  pounds  called  for  in  the  standard,  the  ration  will  be 
balanced  according  to  the  standard. 

Figuring  a  Ration.  —  To  plan  a  ration  for  a  1000  pound 
steer  at  rest,  first  find  the  requirements  according  to  the 
standard  used.  The  Wolff -Lehmann  standard  calls  for 
18  pounds  of  total  dry  matter,  0.7  pound  of  digestible 
protein,  8.0  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  o.i 
pound  of  digestible  fats  in  the  ration.  The  nutritive  ratio 
of  the  mixture  should  be  i :  11.8,  which  is  wide,  because 
the  steer  at  rest  needs  little  protein  but  requires  considerable 
heat-making  food  to  maintain  the  temperature  of  the  body. 
Roughage  is  better  for  this  purpose  than  are  concentrates. 

Assuming  that  timothy  hay  and  oat  straw  are  both 
available,  10  pounds  of  each  can  be  taken  as  a  trial  ration. 
The  Appendix  tables  show  that  in  100  pounds  of  timothy 
hay  there  are  86.8  pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.8  pounds  of 
digestible  protein,  42.4  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates, 
and  1.3  pounds  of  digestible  fats.  In  10  pounds  of  timothy 
hay  there  will  be  tc  of  those  amounts,  or  8.68  pounds  of 
dry  matter,  0.28  pound  of  digestible  protein,  4.24  pounds 
of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.13  pound  of  digestible 


74 


HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES  ITS   FEED 


fats.     In  like  manner  it  will  be  found  that  lo  pounds  of 

oat  straw  will  furnish  9.08  pounds  of  dry  matter,  0.13 

pound  of  digestible   protein,    3.95    pounds   of   digestible 

carbohydrates,  and  0.08  pound  of  digestible  fats. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparison,  these  facts  are  tabulated 

as  follows : 

Ration  for  iooo   Pound  Steer  at  Rest 

First  trial  ration 


Digestible  Nutrients 

Dry 

Matter 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Feeding  Stuffs 

Crude 

Carbo- 

Fats 

Protein 

HVDRATES 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

10  pounds  timothy  hay 

8.68 

0.28 

4.24 

0.13 

10  pounds  oat  straw  .     .     . 

9.08 

0.13 

3-95 

0.08 

Sum  of  first  trial  ration 

17.76 

0.41 

8.19 

0.21 

I  :  20.6 

Wolff-Lehmann  standard   . 

18.00 

0.7 

8.00 

O.IO 

1 :  11.8 

Excess  or  deficit    .... 

—0.24 

—  0.29 

+0.19 

+0.1 1 

The  first  trial  ration  is  low  in  dry  matter,  very  low  in 
protein,  and  high  in  carbohydrates  and  fats.  Some  feed  that 
is  high  in  digestible  protein  and  low  in  non-protein  material 
must  be  found  to  balance  the  ration.  New-process  lin- 
seed oil  meal  is  such  a  feed.  If  one  pound  of  this  meal  be 
added,  the  second  trial  ration  will  appear  as  follows : 

Second  trial  ration 


Dry 

Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutrittve 
Ratio 

Feeding  Stuffs 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fats 

% 

First  trial  ration  .... 
New-process  linseed  meal, 

lib 

Second  trial  ration    .     .     . 
Wolff-Lehmann  standard   . 
Excess  or  deficit   .... 

lb. 
17.76 

0.91 

18.67 

18.00 

+0.67 

lb. 
0.410 

0.3^5 

0.725 

0.700 

+0.025 

lb. 
8.190 

0.357 
8.547 
8.000 

+0.547 

lb. 
0.210 

0.024 
0.234 

O.IOO 

+0.134 

1:12. 5 
I  :  11.8 

TRIAL  RATION 


75 


The  addition  of  i  pound  of  new-process  oil  meal  makes 
the  second  trial  ration  too  high  in  all  nutrients,  —  the  ex- 
cess being  most  noticeable  in  digestible  carbohydrates  and 
fats.  If  two  pounds  of  oat  straw  are  deducted,  the  third 
trial  ration  appears  as  follows : 

Third  trial  ration 


Digestible  Nutrients 

Dry 

Matter 

Nutritive 
Ratio 

Feeding  Stuffs 

Crude 

Carbo- 

Fats 

Protein 

hydrates 

lb. 

lb. 

Ih. 

W. 

Second  trial  ration     .     .     . 

18.670 

0.725 

8.547 

0.2.34 

Oat  straw  (deducted),  2  lb. 

1.816 

0.026 

0.790 

0.016 

Third  trial  ration .... 

16.854 

0.699 

7-757 

0.218 

1:11.8 

Wolff-Lehmann  standard   . 

18.000 

0.700 

8.000 

O.IOO 

i:  11.8 

Excess  or  deficit   .... 

—  1. 146 

— O.OOI 

-0.243 

+0.II8 

The  third  trial  ration  falls  below  the  standard  by  1.146 
pounds  of  dry  matter,  which  is  unimportant;  o.ooi  pound 
of  digestible  protein,  which  is  insignificant;  and  0.243 
pound  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  which  is  offset  by  an 
excess  of  0.118  pound  of  digestible  fat. 

Thus  a  satisfactory  ration  for  a  1000  pound  steer  at 
rest  might  consist  of  10  pounds  of  timothy  hay,  8  pounds 
of  oat  straw,  and  i  pound  of  new-process  oil  meal. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  the  fat  of  the  ration 
as  low  as  the  standard  requirements,  but  since  carbo- 
hydrate and  fat  material  are  both  sources  of  energy  and 
fat  for  the  animal,  these  two  nutrients  may  interchange 
in  the  ration.  So  long  as  the  protein  supplied  in  the  ra- 
tion is  near  to  the  requirements  of  the  standard  and  the 
nutritive  ratio  of  the  ration  is  close  to  that  of  the  standard, 
it  matters  little  if  the  fat  content  is  high.     Neither  is  it  so 


76 


HOW  THE  ANIjMAL   USES   ITS   FEED 


important  to  keep  the  dry  matter  requirements  up  to  the 
standard,  since  it  is  the  digestible  parts  of  the  ration, 
rather  than  the  total  of  its  constituents,  that  is  of  greatest 
importance. 

Suppose  a  ration  is  required  for  a  cow  weighing  900 
pounds,  and  producing  16.6  pounds  of  milk  daily.  The 
standard  for  the  1000  pound  cow  producing  16.6  pounds 
of  milk  daily,  calls  for  27  pounds  of  dry  matter,  2.0  pounds 
of  digestible  protein,  ii.o  pounds  of  digestible  carbohy- 
drates, and  0.4  pound  of  digestible  fats.  The  900  pound 
cow  will  require  nine  tenths  as  much  or  24.3  pounds  of  dry 
matter,  1.8  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  9.9  pounds  of  di- 
gestible carbohydrates,  and  0.36  pound  of  digestible  fats. 

Assuming  that  there  are  available  for  feeding,  corn  silage, 
red  clover  hay,  wheat  bran,  and  ground  oats,  the  follow- 
ing amounts  may  be  selected  for  a  trial  ration :  20  pounds 
of  silage,  10  pounds  of  clover  hay,  5  pounds  of  bran,  and 
2  pounds  of  ground  oats.  Tabulating  these  materials,  as 
was  done  in  the  case  of  figuring  the  ration  for  the  steer,  the 
results  appear  as  follows : 

Trial  Ration  for  a  900  Lb.  Cow  Producing  16.6  Lb.  of  Milk  Daily 


Dry 
Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Nutrith'e 
Ratio 

Feeding  Stuffs 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fats 

Roughages 

Corn  silage,  20  lb. 

Clover  hay,  10  lb. 
Concentrates 

Wheat  bran,  5  lb.  . 

Ground  oats,  2  lb. 

Jb. 

5-280 

8.470 

4-405 
1.760 

lb. 

0.280 

0.710 

0-595 
0.202 

lb. 

2.840 
3.780 

2.100 
1.050 

lb. 
0.014 
0.180 

0.125 
0.740 

Trial  ration     .     .     . 
Standard     .... 

19-915 

24-3 

1.787 
1.800 

9.770 
9.900 

0.3930 
0.3600 

I  :  5.96 
1:6 

Excess  or  deficit  .     . 

-4-385 

—  0.013 

-0.2300 

+0.0330 

FIGURING  R.\TIONS  77 

This  ration  is  quite  near  the  standard  in  all  nutrients 
and  the  nutritive  ratio  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  the 
standard.  According  to  the  standard,  a  ration  consisting 
of  the  above  feeds  in  the  amounts  given  would  be  suitable 
for  the  900  pound  cow  producing  16.6  pounds  of  milk  daily. 

Helpful  Rules  in  Figuring  Rations.  —  A  few  simple  rules 
are  of  value  in  calculating  rations.  The  average  ration  of 
the  average  dairy  cow  is  about  as  follows  :  24  to  40  pounds 
of  silage,  6  to  10  pounds  of  hay,  and  i  pound  of  grain  mix- 
ture daily  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  produced  weekly, 
or  I  pound  of  grain  mixture  for  every  3  or  4  pounds  of  milk 
produced.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  this  ration  is  between 
I  :  6  and  1:7. 

A  1000  pound  fattening  steer  will  require  about  15  pounds 
of  grain  mixture  or  about  18  to  20  pounds  of  corn  on  the 
cob,  15  to  20  pounds  of  corn  silage,  and  6  to  10  pounds  of 
alfalfa  or  clover  hay.  A  rule  for  feeding  horses  is  to 
supply  about  i  pound  of  hay  daily  for  each  100  pounds  of 
live  weight.  The  horse  on  light  work  should  receive  about 
I  pound  of  grain  to  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight  and  the 
horse  at  heavy  work  should  receive  one  third  to  one  half 
more  to  keep  it  in  good  flesh.  In  the  Haecker  standard, 
in  the  Appendix,  the  1000  pound  cow  requires  for  main- 
tenance, independently  of  the  milk  produced,  0.7  pound 
of  digestible  protein,  7.0  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrate 
material,  and  o.i  pound  of  digestible  fat.  For  each  100 
pounds  that  the  cow  weighs  more  than  1000  pounds,  the 
maintenance  standard  is  increased  by  one  tenth,  and  for 
each  100  pounds  that  the  cow  weighs  less  than  1000  pounds, 
one  tenth  is  deducted.  To  the  maintenance  requirements 
are  added  the  amounts  necessary  to  produce  the  required 
amount  of  milk  of  a  certain  richness  in  fat,  and  the  same 


78  HOW  THE  ANIMAL  USES  ITS   FEED 

method  of  finding  the  amounts  of  the  various  feed  stuffs 
is  followed,  as  in  the  case  of  calculating  for  the  Wolff- 
Lehmann  standards. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Calculate  a  ration  for  a  250  lb.  pig,  using  the  Wolff-Leh- 
mann  standards. 

2.  Calculate  the  nutritive  ratio  of  the  various  rations  fed  on 
the  home  farm. 

3.  Compound  a  better  ration  in  each  case  if  the  home  rations 
are  deficient  or  expensive. 

4.  By  the  use  of  the  Haecker  table  calculate  a  ration,  using 
home-grown  feeds,  for  a  1 200  lb.  Holstein  cow  giving  40  lbs.  of 
3.5  per  cent  milk  daily. 

HOME   PROJECT 

Try  out  for  at  least  one  month's  time  on  the  home  farm 
some  new  ration  that  you  have  calculated,  keeping  accurate 
account  of  results. 


CHAPTER  VI 
BREEDS   OF   HORSES 

Breed  is  a  term  applied  to  a  group  of  animals  homoge- 
neous in  blood,  possessing  certain  well-defined  characters, 
which  are  uniformly  transmitted  by  inheritance;  and 
whose  records  are  kept  by  a  duly  authorized  association. 

Type  is  a  term  that  designates  the  use  to  which  an 
animal  is  adapted.  In  each  class  of  live  stock  there  are  dif- 
ferent types  evolved  by  the  special  use  made  of  the  animals 
during  the  development  of  the  breeds.  Thus,  under  the 
term  ''  beef  type  "  are  included  animals  especially  adapted 
to  the  production  of  beef.  To  the  "  dairy  type  "  belong 
animals  suited  for  the  production  of  milk. 

The  breeds  of  horses  are  classified  according  to  type  or 
use.  There  are  certain  breeds  of  horses  which  are  better 
suited  for  certain  purposes  than  other  breeds.  The  Per- 
cheron  horse  is  better  adapted  for  pulling  heavy  loads  than 
the  thoroughbred.  The  latter  has  been  developed  for  speed, 
and  for  this  purpose  is  much  better  than  the  Percheron. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  HORSES 

According  to  type,  horses  are  classified  as  draft  horses, 
coach  horses,  saddle  horses,  roadsters,  and  ponies.  Mules 
and  asses  are  given  a  separate  classification. 

The  breeds  of  draft  horses  are  Percheron,  Belgian,  Clydes- 
dale, Shire,  and  Suffolk  Punch. 

79 


8o 


BREEDS   OF   HORSES 


PERCHERON  HORSE  8i 

The  breeds  of  coach,  or  carriage,  horses  are  Hackney, 
French  Coach,  German  Coach,  Cleveland  Bay,  and  off- 
shoots therefrom. 

Breeds  of  horses  belonging  to  the  roadster  type  are 
American  Trotter  and  Pacer,  Arabian  horse,  and  Thorough- 
bred. 

Included  among  ponies  are  the  American  ponies,  which 
comprise  Indian  ponies,  mustangs,  and  bronchos  ;  Shetland 
ponies,  Welsh  ponies,  and  Hackney  ponies. 

According  to  the  use  to  which  they  are  put,  mules 
are  classified  as  plantation  or  sugar  mules,  lumber  mules, 
railroad  mules,  levee  mules,  and  mine  mules. 

THE  PERCHERON  HORSE 

Percheron  horses  are  the  most  popular  and  widely  distrib- 
uted of  all  the  draft  breeds  in  America  to-day.  They  orig- 
inated in  the  district  or  province  of  La  Perche,  located  in 
the  north-central  part  of  France.  In  the  early  history  of 
France,  along  about  the  eighth  century,  horses  were  used 
a  great  deal  in  war,  and  the  French  drew  freely  for  breed- 
ing purposes  upon  the  Arabian  horses  which  they  cap- 
tured from  the  Saracens  whom  they  defeated  in  732  a.d. 
War  as  fought  in  those  days  demanded  active,  strong,  and 
rather  heavy  horses.  Such  horses  had  been  developed 
by  the  nomadic  Arabs  and  were  selected  for  use  in  France. 
These  Arabian  fusions  were  practiced  until  about  a  century 
ago,  when  a  demand  for  large,  active,  strong  horses  arose  in 
France  to  be  used  not  for  war  but  on  the  heavy  omnibuses 
in  the  cities,  and  for  farm  work  in  the  country.  These 
horses  were  strong,  powerful,  and  active,  somewhat  rangy  in 
conformation,  but  well  muscled.     When  railroads  became 

T.    AND    L.       ANIMAL   HUSB. 6 


82  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

common  and  the  use  of  street  cars  and  motor  buses  sup- 
planted the  horse-drawn  vehicles  there  arose  a  new  de- 
mand for  heavy  draft  horses.  The  American  trade  which 
called  for  strong,  heavy  animals  has  had  much  to  do  with 
developing  the  Percheron  draft  horse. 

The  country  in  which  these  horses  originated  is  fertile, 
the  climate  is  mild  and  furnishes  ideal  conditions  for  the 
rearing  of  good  horses.  The  French  government  has  also 
helped  to  improve  the  horses  of  the  nation  by  inspecting 
them,  keeping  the  good  animals  in  the  country  and  subsi- 
dizing the  best  ones  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  first  importation  of  Percherons  to  this  country  was 
made  in  1839  into  the  state  of  New  Jersey.  In  1851,  the 
horse  "  Louis  Napoleon  "  was  imported  and  found  his 
way  to  Illinois,  where  it  is  said  he  became  the  sire  of  over 
400  colts  whose  good  qualities  helped  to  advertise  these 
horses  and  make  them  popular  with  farmers. 

Characteristics.  —  The  prevailing  colors  of  the  Per- 
cheron are  gray  and  black.  Some  bays  and  browns  occur, 
but  they  are  less  popular  and  common  than  the  two  above 
named.  Formerly  the  imported  horses  were  not  so  heavy 
as  the  type  now  popular,  and  more  grays  than  blacks  were 
brought  into  the  country.  The  Percheron  type  is  that  of 
a  strong,  well-muscled,  thick-bodied,  clean-boned,  low- 
set  draft  horse.  The  good  Percheron  is  noted  for  the  size 
and  quality  of  its  feet ;  well-muscled  arms,  forearms,  gas- 
kins  and  thighs  ;  clean,  hard,  flinty  cannon  bones,  free  from 
superfluous  hair ;  strong,  deep,  and  wide  chest ;  short,  wide 
back  ;  strong,  well-breasted  neck ;  and  a  good  head  carrying 
neat  ears  and  bold,  clear  eyes.  The  action  is  free,  bold,  and 
straightforward,  showing  vitality  and  vigor  in  the  horse. 
Some  of  the  too  common  weaknesses  are  tendencies  to 


PERCHERON  HORSE  83 

droop  at  the  croup,  sickling  at  the  hocks  which  may  have  a 
tendency  to  fill,  and  somewhat  short  and  steep  pasterns, 
giving  the  horse  a  "  stilty  "  gait.  There  is  also  a  tendency 
to  be  too  rangy,  which  is  not  desired  when  one  wishes  to 
grade  up  a  ''  blocky  "  lot  of  horses. 


Fig.  21.  —  Percheron  horse. 

The  Percheron  is  very  prepotent  and  his  ability  to  trans- 
mit his  good  qualities  to  his  progeny  has  made  this  horse 
popular  throughout  the  country.  The  absence  of  hair, 
which  is  liable  to  gather  mud  and  snow,  around  the  fetlocks 
and  on  the  cannon  bones  has  made  this  breed  a  favored 
one  with  farmers,  and  their  weight  and  size,  together  with 
the  good  quahty  of  their  feet,  have  made  these  horses  good 
sellers  in  the  cities. 


84  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 


THE   BELGIAN  HORSE 


History.  —  Belgian  horses  were  first  imported  into 
America  from  Belgium  about  1886.  Because  of  their 
size,  compactness,  early  maturing  qualities,  strength,  and 
quiet  disposition,  they  have  met  with  much  favor  at  the 
hands  of  American  farmers.  The  history  of  their  origin  has 
been  rather  obscure,  although  it  is  known  that  draft  horses 
have  been  produced  in  this  section  of  Europe  for  centuries, 
and  horses  from  Belgium  have  played  an  important  part  in 
the  improvement  of  other  European  draft  breeds. 

They  are  said  to  be  a  product  of  the  environment  in  which 
they  developed,  so  that  few  men  stand  out  prominently  as 
improvers  of  the  breed.  Since  about  1850,  the  government 
of  Belgium  has  done  much  through  subsidies  to  encourage 
the  producers  of  these  horses,  and  to  keep  the  best  ones 
in  the  country.  More  males  than  females  are  brought  to 
America,  most  of  the  females  being  kept  in  Belgium  or 
sold  to  Germany,  where  Belgian  horses  are  also  well  liked. 

Characteristics.  —  These  horses  are  very  compact,  being 
the  heaviest  breed  of  horses  for  their  apparent  size.  The 
body  is  short  and  round  with  well-sprung  ribs,  and  set  upon 
short  legs.  The  principal  colors  are  sorrel,  chestnut,  roan, 
bay,  and  black.  Grays  are  quite  uncommon.  The  breast 
is  wide  and  the  limbs  are  muscular.  The  objections 
to  the  breed  are  a  tendency  to  meatiness  in  the  re- 
gion of  the  joints  and  roundness  of  hocks  and  can- 
non bones.  The  pasterns  are  often  too  short  and  steep, 
and  a  common  criticism  is  that  the  feet,  although  of  good 
material,  are  too  small  in  circumference  at  the  hoof  head 
and  too  high  at  the  heel.  These  combined  defects  often 
lead  to  poor  action  and  a  stumbly  gait. 


CLYDESDALE   HORSE 


85 


Mature  males  should  weigh  2000  pounds  and  mature 
females  at  least  1600  pounds  each. 

THE   CLYDESDALE   HORSE 

History.  —  Clydesdale  horses,  of  pure  Scotch  origin,  and 
the  favorite  horses  in  Scotland,  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  where  Scotchmen  live.  They  are  produced  in  largest 
numbers  at  present  in  southwestern  Scotland,  although  good 
Clydesdales  are  bred  in  England,  in  Australia,  in  Canada, 
and  in  the  United  States. 

In  developing  these  horses,  there  are  certain  prominent 
characteristics  for  which  the  Scotchmen  have  firmly  stood, 
and  these  features  are  the  principal  ones  for  which  the 
Clydesdale  horse  is  noted.     Males  of  the  proper  proportions 


Fig.  22.  —  Clydesdale  horse. 


86  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

should  weigh  as  much  as  2000  pounds,  and  the  females 
should  weigh  at  least  1600  pounds  when  mature. 

Characteristics.  —  These  horses  have  been  selected  for 
their  true  and  snappy  action,  excellent  conformation  and 
quahty  of  feet,  pasterns,  and  Umbs.  The  best  Clydesdales 
have  large  feet  with  open  hoof  heads  and  Hberal  width  at 
the  heels ;  the  pasterns  are  long  and  sloping ;  the  cannon 
bones  are  clean,  hard,  and  supported  by  strong  well-defined 
tendons.  The  feather  or  hair  that  grows  back  of  the  can- 
non bones  is  fine,  denoting  quality.  The  hock  joint  is 
usually  well  set  and  clean,  and  the  knees  are  large,  straight, 
and  flat.  The  thighs  and  quarters  are  strong,  and  the  arm 
and  forearm  are  well  muscled.  They  have  gently  sloping 
shoulders  and  are  high  at  the  withers. 

The  body  is  somewhat  rangier  than  that  of  the  Belgian 
or  Percheron.  The  Clydesdales  are  excellent  draft  horses 
and  good  types  sell  well ;  but  they  have  not  met  with  the 
favor  on  the  market  that  the  Percherons  enjoy,  because 
they  lack  compactness  of  form.  American  farmers  who 
have  used  the  Clydesdale  horse  object  to  the  hairy  legs, 
which  gather  mud  and  snow,  and  are  thus  hard  to  keep 
clean ;  and  the  market  does  not  favor  pasterns  that  slope 
extremely. 

In  America,  they  were  first  imported  to  Canada  in  1842, 
where  they  are  found  to-day  in  greater  numbers  than  in 
the  United  States.  Their  continued  use  has  greatly  im- 
proved Canadian  horses. 

The  favorite  and  commonest  color  of  the  Clydesdale  is 
bay  with  perhaps  one  or  more  white  feet  and  cannon  bones, 
and  a  white  star  on  the  forehead  or  white  strip  in  the  face. 
Black,  gray,  and  chestnut  colors  are  also  found,  but  they 
are  not  encouraged  in  fancy  breeding. 


SHIRE   HORSE  87 


THE   SHIRE   HORSE 


The  Shire  horses  are  the  most  popular  draft  horses  in 
England.  They  have  become  general  in  city  use  in  that 
country  because  of  their  great  weight  and  strength. 

They  have  developed  and  are  now  bred  mostly  in  the  low 
flat  lands  of  England,  where  the  soil  is  rich,  climate  moist, 
and  vegetation  abundant.  f, 

Although  much  valued  in  England,  both  in  the  cities 
and  on  the  farms,  and  used  to  a  large  extent  in  continental 


Fig.  23.  —  Shire  horse. 

Europe  and  in  Australia,  they  have  not  met  with  general 
favor  in  America,  because  of  the  abundant  growth  of  hair 
on  their  legs,  to  which  our  farmers  object. 

Some  people  have  difficulty  in  distinguishing  between 
the  Shire  and  the  Clydesdale  breeds.     While  bay  is  the  pre- 


88  BREEDS   OF   HORSES 

vailing  color  in  both  breeds,  and  both  have  hairy  legs,  the 
body  of  the  Shire  is  much  more  compact,  the  legs  much 
rounder  and  meatier,  and  the  hair,  skin,  bones,  and  feet 
much  coarser  in  quality.  The  pasterns  and  shoulders  of 
the  Shire  are  steeper  and  the  action  is  less  rapid,  true,  and 
snappy  than  in  the  Clydesdale. 

The  colors  are  bay,  black,  gray,  and  chestnut,  the  popu- 
larity of  color  running  in  about  the  order  named. 

THE   SUFFOLK  HORSE 

Origin.  —  The  Suffolk  or  Suffolk  Punch  is  a  breed  of 
draft  horses  that  developed  in  the  county  of  Suffolk  in 
eastern  England,  and  it  is  in  this  section  of  the  world  that 
the  greatest  numbers  are  to  be  found  to-day.  They  have 
never  been  much  exploited  in  America,  which  accounts, 
in  a  great  measure,  for  their  apparent  lack  of  popularity. 
The  breed,  however,  has  merit  and  will,  no  doubt,  enjoy 
wider  distribution  when  its  worth  is  more  widely  known 
and  appreciated. 

Characteristics.  —  The  purity  of  this  breed  can  be  traced 
further  back  than  any  other  breed  of  British  horses,  being 
well  established  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century.  As  to  form,  they  are  characterized  by  a  low, 
deep,  compact  body;  short,  strong  back ; excellent  spring  of 
ribs ;  strong  thighs,  and  depth  of  flank.  They  are  excellent 
feeders,  and  can  easily  be  kept  in  good  flesh.  Their  action 
is  good  and  their  limbs  are  clean.  The  general  objections 
are  feet  of  limited  size,  although  generally  of  good  quality 
and  texture,  and  pasterns  somewhat  too  steep.  They  are 
also  criticized  for  being  too  light  in  the  limbs  in  propor- 
tion to  their  heavy  bodies,  although  the  bones  are  clean 
and  strong  and  the  muscles  are  well  developed. 


COACH  BREEDS 


89 


Fig.  24.  —  Suffolk  horse. 


These  horses  are  uniformly  chestnut  in  color  and  breed 
very  true  to  type,  which  makes  them  valuable  for  pur- 
poses of  grading.  The  males  weigh  from  1900  to  2000 
pounds,  and  the  females  about  1600  to  1700  pounds,  at 
mature  weight. 

THE  HACKNEY  HORSE 

Coach  Breeds.  —  The  Hackneys  belong  to  the  coach  or 
carriage  horses,  which  include  three  other  types ;  French 
Coach,  German  Coach,  and  Cleveland  Bay. 

History.  —  Hackneys  are  heavy  harness  horses,  in  which 
beauty  and  attractiveness  of  action  are  combined  with 
strength  and  symmetry  of  body.  They  originated  in 
Yorkshire,  England,  where  as  early  as  1800  they  were  bred 
for  trotting  purposes.     In  early  Hackney  pedigrees  there 


90  BREEDS   OF  HORSES 

often  appear  the  same  names  as  are  found  in  trotting  horse 
pedigrees,  showing  that  these  breeds  have  similar  origin. 
Later,  toward  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
establishment  of  horse  shows  did  much  to  encourage  im- 
provement in  the  breed.  The  action  of  the  Hackney  is  at- 
tractive, being  strong  and  ''  flashy  "  rather  than  ^'  speedy." 
Speed  is  sacrificed  for  great  knee  and  hock  action,  which 
produce  the  ''  high  stepping  "  horses  so  popular  at  horse 
shows.  Since  weight  is  essential  to  strength,  and  action  is 
associated  with  lack  of  weight,  the  greatest  difficulty  met 
in  getting  good  Hackneys  is  to  attain  proper  weight  and 
retain  quality  and  action  in  the  animal. 

Characteristics.  —  In  form  the  Hackney  is  muscular, 
with  a  round,  compact  body.  To  allow  the  desired  high 
knee  action,  the  shoulder  is  well  sloped  and  muscular. 
Strength  and  depth  of  thigh  favor  the  extreme  action  of 
the  hock.  The  neck  is  quite  muscular  and  nicely  curved ; 
the  head  is  clean  with  a  straight  profile.  The  loin  is 
heavily  muscled,  and  the  croup  is  comparatively  straight. 
The  feet  of  the  Hackney  are  well  shaped  and  of  good  qual- 
ity. The  pasterns  are  long,  strong,  gently  sloping,  and 
springy,  and  the  joints  of  the  knee  and  hock  are  large, 
clean,  and  well  set. 

These  horses  are  generally  chestnut,  brown,  or  bay  of 
sohd  color,  making  them  easily  matched. 

Males  weigh  up  to  1500  pounds  and  females  up  to  1300 
pounds. 

Hackneys  are  well  distributed  throughout  the  world 
wherever  fancy  carriage  horses  are  demanded.  Although 
the  first  importation  of  any  great  numbers  to  America  did 
not  appear  until  after  1881,  they  are  now  our  most  popular 
heavy  harness  horse. 


COACH   HORSE 


91 


THE   FRENCH   COACH  HORSE 

History.  —  This  breed  of  horses  has  been  developed  in 
France,  in  a  region  west  of  the  city  of  Paris.  They  were 
used  for  several  different  purposes,  which  evolved   several 


Fig.  25. — French  Coach  horse. 

different  types.  For  centuries  the  French  people  have  had 
racing  horses,  especially  horses  that  could  trot  rapidly  un- 
der the  saddle  for  distances  of  from  one  to  three  miles. 
This  developed  the  Trotting  type.  The  government  of 
France  has  done  much  to  encourage  the  breeding  of  horses 
for  army  or  remount  purposes,  and  it  offers  a  premium  or 
subsidy  of  from  Si 00  to  Si 000  annually  on  good  stallions. 


92  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

so  that  the  owners  will  keep  them  in  France  for  breeding 
purposes.  This  government  aid  gave  rise  to  the  army 
type.  In  France,  as  in  other  countries,  a  desire  on  the 
part  of  the  people  for  a  horse  suitable  for  carriage  work 
gave  rise  to  the  carriage  type.  The  animals  of  the  car- 
riage type,  the  most  popular  in  America,  weigh  from  1200 
to  1400  pounds;  an  average  weight  for  males  being 
1350  pounds  and  for  females  about  1200  pounds. 

Characteristics.  —  In  perfecting  this  breed,  the  French 
introduced  blood  from  all  available  sources,  the  aim  being 
to  produce  the  desired  type,  regardless  of  origin.  From 
England  came  the  blood  of  Thoroughbreds  and  Hackneys ; 
from  Arabia  the  blood  of  the  Arabian  horse;  and  from 
America  some  American  Trotter  blood.  The  result  of  these 
infusions  is  a  horse  of  strength,  style,  and  quality,  and 
with  an  abundance  of  action. 

The  prevailing  colors  are  bay,  brown,  and  black,  and  the 
height  is  about  16  hands  They  are  an  upstanding  breed 
with  clean  heads  and  necks,  round,  compact  bodies,  and 
deep,  strong  quarters.  Although  most  popular  in  France, 
they  are  found  in  large  numbers  in  America. 

THE  GERMAN  COACH  HORSE 

History.  —  This  breed  of  horses  was  developed  in  the 
northwestern  part  of  Germany  for  heavy  carriage  pur- 
poses, and  by  the  government  for  army  purposes. 

It  is  definitely  known  that  these  horses  have  been  bred 
in  Germany  for  centuries,  but  authorities  are  uncertain  as 
to  their  true  origin  and  development.  The  various  Ger- 
man states  have  produced  the  different  types  of  German 
Coach  horses  in  America  to-day,  and  these  types  have 
different  names.     Thus  we  find  advertised  the  East  Prus- 


COACH  HORSE  93 

sian  or  Trakehner,  the  Hanoverian,  the  Holstein,  the 
Oldenberg,  East  Friesland,  and  Mecklenburg,  all  claimed  to 
be  German  Coach  horses. 

Characteristics.  —  The  German  Coach  horses  generally 
seen  at  American  shows  are  somewhat  heavier  than  the 
French  Coach  horses,  and  the  styHsh  action  of  the  Hack- 
ney is  usually  lacking.  They  have  strong  muscular  necks 
and  shoulders;  round,  strong  bodies;  level  croups,  and 
strong  thighs  and  quarters.  The  colors  are  black,  bay, 
and  brown.  They  weigh  about  1350  to  1450  pounds,  and 
stand  about  16  to  16^  hands  high.  In  Germany,  the 
Hghter  ones  are  used  for  fast  driving,  and  the  heavier  ones 
as  horses  of  all  work.  In  this  country  they  have  not 
attained  any  great  popularity. 

THE   CLEVELAND   BAY  HORSE 

History.  —  This  breed  of  coach  horses  originated  in 
Yorkshire,  in  northern  England.  They  were  developed  to 
meet  the  demand  for  a  heavy  horse  for  cross  country  coach- 
ing, and  to  draw  heavy  ^'  turn-outs  "  in  the  cities. 

Characteristics.  —  They  are  an  upstanding  breed,  uni- 
versally bay  in  color,  weigh  up  to  1500  pounds,  and  have 
strong  action.  They  are  very  prepotent  in  transmitting 
these  characters  when  crossed  with  common  breeds.  For 
these  reasons,  they  can  be  easily  matched,  are  attractive, 
and  good  specimens  sell  well. 

Cleveland  Bay  horses  have  never  become  very  popular 
in  America.  Their  size  and  endurance  might  make  them 
useful  for  farm  work,  but  farmers  prefer  to  raise  the  more 
salable  and  profitable  draft  horse.  In  competition  with 
the  Hackney,  they  lack  the  action  and  quality  necessary 
for  great  success  as  heavy  harness  or  carriage  horses. 


94  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

THE  AMERICAN  TROTTER  AND   PACER 

The  Roadster  Tjrpe.  —  This  group  of  horses  includes 
among  others  the  following  three  prominent  breeds ; 
American  Trotter  and  Pacer,  Arabian,  and  Thoroughbred. 

History.  —  The  American  Trotter,  whose  ancestry  can 
be  traced  to  the  trotting  and  Thoroughbred  horses  of 
England,  has  been  developed  for  the  sole  purpose  of  speed 
and  pleasure.  By  selecting  and  mating  the  horses  that 
made  fast  records,  a  type  best  suited  for  speed  has  been 
evolved.  American  Trotters  are  the  fastest  trotting  horses 
in  the  world.  Trotting  bred  horses  that  come  up  to  cer- 
tain standard  requirements  set  forth  by  the  American 
Trotting  Register  are  known  as  ''  Standard  Bred  Horses." 

Characteristics.  —  The  trot  is  a  gait  in  which  one  front 
foot  and  the. opposite  hind  foot  are  moved  forward  at  the 
same  time.  In  the  pace,  one  front  foot  and  one  hind 
foot  on  the  same  side  are  moved  forward  at  the  same  time. 
In  both  the  trot  and  pace,  there  is  a  time  that  all  four  feet 
are  in  the  air,  the  horse  being  thrown  forward  with  mo- 
mentum sufficient  to  carry  his  weight  through  the  air. 
The  trot  is  straightforward.  In  the  pace,  the  body  has  a 
swaying  motion  from  side  to  side.  The  pace  is  a  faster 
gait  than  the  trot,  the  world's  pacing  record  for  a  mile 
being  about  three  seconds  lower.  The  trot  is  a  more 
powerful  looking  gait,  and  for  driving  purposes  it  is  the 
more  popular.  In  the  pace  the  feet  are  not  lifted  so  high 
from  the  ground,  which  is  an  advantage  on  hard  roads 
and  streets,  giving  the  horse  somewhat  better  wearing 
qualities. 

The  form  of  these  horses  is  strongly  in  contrast  with  the 
form  of  the  draft  horse.     Strength  is  sacrificed  for  speed, 


TROTTING   HORSE 


95 


Fig.  26.  —  American  Trotter. 


and  huge  muscles  are  replaced  by  strong  tendons.  Short, 
thick,  coarse  bones  are  replaced  by  more  slender  and  re- 
fined bones  of  great  strength,  smoothness,  and  hardness. 
The  hair  is  also  finer  than  that  of  the  draft  horse.  The 
eyes  are  bright  and  clear,  the  chest  is  deep  and  full,  and  the 
back  short  and  strong  ;  all  these  points  indicating  endurance 
and  constitution.  The  joints  are  clean  and  strong,  and  the 
feet  of  proportionate  size  and  of  extra  good  quality. 

Some  Great  Race  Horses.  —  The  history  of  the  trotting 
horse  is  associated  with  the  racetrack,  and  records  made 
there  have  influenced  the  selection  of  breeding  stock.  The 
horse.  Messenger,  imported  to  America  in  1788  and  traced 
back  to  Thoroughbred  stock,  had  a  marked  influence  upon 


96  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

American  horses.  A  great  many  trotting  horse  families 
trace  their  parentage  back  to  Messenger,  and  an  elaborate 
pedigree  of  Dan  Patch  (i  :$si)  traces  back  to  Messenger 
43  times.  Some  of  the  leading  families  are  the  Clay, 
Morgan,  Hal,  Mambrino  Chief,  Hambletonian,  and  Pilot. 
Since  most  of  these  families  started  about  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  the  trotting  horse  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  development. 

The  Morgan  family,  from  which  are  obtained  the  Mor- 
gan horses,  is  not  famous  for  speed,  but  for  horses  that 
are  symmetrical,  useful,  beautiful,  and  stylish. 

The  Standard  Bred  trotting  horses  are  most  useful  for 
producing  roadsters,  a  class  of  horses  which  the  auto- 
mobile is  rapidly  supplanting.  The  United  States  govern- 
ment is  now  developing  a  type  of  heavy  harness  horse  by 
mating  the  heavier  and  stronger  Standard  Bred  horses. 

THE  ARABIAN  HORSE 

The  Arabian  horse  deserves  study  because  its  blood 
has  had  much  to  do  in  developing  practically  all  of  our 
modern  breeds. 

History.  —  The  breed  of  Arabian  horses  was  well  estab- 
lished before  the  time  of  Mohammed,  who  lived  about 
seven  hundred  years  after  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  the 
history  of  this  breed  is  definitely  known  back  to  about 
1500  A.D.  The  blood  of  the  Arabian  horse  is  distributed 
over  practically  the  entire  world  in  the  breeds  of  light 
horses.  Arabian  horses  were  first  imported  into  England 
early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  helped  to  develop  the 
Hackney  and  Thoroughbred.  They  were  introduced  very 
early  into  America  and  had  a  marked  influence  upon  our 
light  horses. 


THOROUGHBRED   HORSE  97 

Characteristics.  —  This  breed  of  horses  is  noted  for 
beauty,  endurance,  and  fearlessness.  They  are  strongly 
and  symmetrically  built,  and  stand  about  i4i  hands  high. 
The  colors  may  be  white,  gray,  bay,  chestnut,  brown,  or 
black. 

THE  THOROUGHBRED   HORSE 

This  term  is  properly  appHed  only  to  a  distinct  breed  of 
horses  developed  principally  in  England. 

History.  —  It  is  thought  that  the  ancestry  of  the  Thor- 
oughbred traces  back  to  Oriental  and  African  horses,  that 
were  brought  into  the  British  Isles  as  far  back  as  the 
seventh  or  eighth  centuries.  From  these  horses  some  of 
the  best  of  the  progeny  were  selected  to  serve  for  cavalry 
and  racing  purposes.  By  selecting  the  fastest  and  largest 
ones  the  general  improvement  of  the  breed  was  accom- 
phshed. 

In  America,  the  Thoroughbred  horse  has  attained  as 
much  perfection  as  in  the  British  Isles.  The  first  ones 
were  introduced  into  Virginia  as  early  as  1730,  and  in  that 
state  are  now  found  some  of  the  best  horses  of  the  breed, 
which  are  used  for  hunting  and  pleasure  purposes. 

Characteristics.  —  They  have  been  bred  pure  longer  than 
any  other  known  breed  and  have  been  developed  primarily 
for  speed  under  the  saddle ;  consequently  the  form  evolved 
is  best  suited  for  that  purpose.  The  typical  Thoroughbred 
is  extremely  refined  about  the  head  with  fine  ears  and  a 
rather  straight  profile.  The  eye  is  clear  and  bright,  indi- 
cating great  nervous  strength  and  endurance.  The  neck 
is  long  and  slender  and  the  head  is  carried  low  rather  than 
high,  as  is  the  case  of  the  more  stylish  carriage  horses. 
The  body  is  long  and  sinuous  ;   and  in  strong  contrast  with 

T.    AND   L.      ANIMAL   HUSB. 7 


98  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

the  short  thick  muscles  so  much  sought  for  in  the  draft 
horse,  this  horse  has  long,  strong  tendons.  The  legs  are 
quite  long;  the  muscles  refined;  the  pasterns  long  and 
strong,  and  the  bones  and  feet  of  the  best  quaUty.  The 
horse  is  strong  in  the  quarters,  with  strong  tendons  and 
joints  in  the  rear  limbs.  The  blood  vessels  show  very 
prominently,  which  is  considered  an  index  of  good 
breeding.  In^  action,  the  one  ideal  is  that  of  speed,  for 
which  style  is  sacrificed.  The  Thoroughbred  should  travel 
close  to  the  ground,  and  waste  no  energy  in  fancy  steps. 
This  horse  has  had  so  much  to  do  with  attracting  the  at- 
tention of  man  toward  the  improvement  of  live  stock  that 
its  study  is  quite  important,  even  though  it  does  not  re- 
ceive much  attention  from  the  practical  breeder. 

At  the  present  time  this  breed  is  very  useful  in  crossing 
with  common  horses  to  impart  quality.  The  American 
Trotter,  Hackney, -and  Coach  breeds  all  owe  much  of  their 
quality  and  refinement  to  the  infusions  of  Thoroughbred 
blood  they  have  received  in  their  development. 

PONIES 

Practically  every  country  in  the  world  where  horses  are 
found  has  developed  its  own  type  of  ponies.  The  sparse 
feed  and  severe  climatic  conditions  under  which  they  are 
produced  tend  to  give  the  pony  its  small  size,  which  alone 
distinguishes  it  from  the  horse.  ^  In  the  British  Isles  the 
height  of  the  pony  is  given  as  14  hands,  but  the  American 
standard  is  14  hands,  i  inch.  The  height  of  the  polo  pony 
is  14  hands,  2  inches,  or  about  the  height  of  the  Arabian 
horse. 

Ponies  are  useful  for  riding,  for  drawing  light  vehicles,  and 


PONIES  99 

in  some  cases  for  doing  light  draft  work.  Their  great  en- 
durance makes  them  especially  desirable  for  long  trips  and 
for  use  in  sections  of  the  country  where  agriculture  has  not 
reached  a  high  state  of  development.  They  can  be  cheaply 
kept  because  they  are  able  to  use  their  food  to  the  best 
possible  advantage. 

In  breeding  ponies,  one  of  the  great  difficulties  is  to  keep 
the  size  within  the  limits  set  by  the  breed  requirements. 
The  care  and  attention  which  must  of  necessity  be  given  to 
breeding  operations  tends  to  increase  the  size  of  the  ani- 
mals with  each  succeeding  generation. 

American  Ponies.  —  In  America,  the  common  pony  is 
the  mustang,  a  term  applied  alike  to  both  bronchos  and 
Indian  ponies.  These  ponies,  which  are  small  and  very 
hardy,  have  been  bred  on  the  ranges  where  they  have  run 
wild  for  many  years.  Their  weights  range  from  850  to 
900  pounds.  Though  difficult  to  break,  they  are  faith- 
ful, intelligent,  fearless  when  trained,  and  have  great  en- 
durance. These  quahties  have  made  them  the  favorite 
pony  of  the  cowboy  on  the  western  ranges. 

Ponies  of  Great  Britain.  —  In  Great  Britain,  there  are 
a  number  of  breeds  of  ponies  produced,  the  most  common 
being  the  Shetland,  the  Welsh,  and  the  Hackney. 

The  Shetland  Pony.  —  The  Shetland  ponies  are  the 
smallest  breed.  In  their  native  country,  the  Shetland 
Islands,  lying  to  the  north  of  Scotland,  they  are  used  to 
carry  loads,  to  work  in  mines,  and  to  draw  vehicles.  Liv- 
ing under  the  influence  of  a  very  severe  climate,  they  are 
the  hardiest  Kttle  horses  that  the  world  produces.  In 
conformation  they  are  blocky ;  their  weight  varies  from  325 
to  375  pounds,  and  their  height  is  from  36  to  40  inches. 
When   allowed    to  run  out  of  doors,  they  produce  long, 


lOO  BREEDS   OF   HORSES 

shaggy  coats  of  hair.  The  common  colors  are  brown, 
black,  and  bay.  There  are  also  chestnuts,  grays,  and  a 
great  many  broken  colors.  In  this  country,  the  Shetland 
pony  is  a  favorite  with  children,  and  as  pets  they  have 
found  their  way  into  nearly  every  country  in  the  civilized 
world. 

The  Welsh  Pony.  —  The  Welsh  pony  is  produced  in  the 
mountain  sections  of  Wales.  Forced  to  exist  under  very 
severe  conditions,  it  has  developed  great  hardiness.  It  is 
not  so  blocky  as  the  Shetland,  but  is  speedier  and  more 
useful  for  both  riding  and  driving. 

The  Hackney  Pony.  —  The  Hackney  pony  is  really  a 
Hackney  horse  less  than  14^  hands  high.  Its  size  has  also 
been  reduced  by  introducing  some  of  the  blood  of  the 
Welsh  pony.  It  has  marvelous  action,  and  because  of  this 
it  is,  in  this  country,  meeting  with  the  favor  of  people  who 
wish  small  horses  for  fancy  driving  purposes. 


Fig.  27.  —  Shetland  Pony. 


THE   DONKEY 


lOI 


Fig.  28.  —  Welsh  Pony. 


THE   DONKEY 


History!  —  The  donkey  or  ass,  a  beast  of  burden  common 
to  southern  Europe,  was  first  brought  to  this  country  about 
the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War.  The  best  types  have 
come  from  Spain  and  France,  and  are  now  found  in  the 
southern  and  central  parts  of  the  United  States,  more 
particularly  in  Kentucky  and  Missouri. 

Characteristics.  —  The  donkey  is  distinguished  from  the 
horse  by  its  long  ears,  large  head,  slender  legs,  small  hoofs, 
and  its  pecuhar  voice.  The  color  soughtior  in  this  country 
is  black,  with  gray  points.  The  feet  are  very  narrow  and 
the  joints  of  the  legs  are  large,  although  the  bones  are  of 
good  quality.     The  body  is  compact  and  the  back  is  short 


I02 


BREEDS   OF  HORSES 


Fig.  29.  —  Donkey. 

and  straight.     The  tail  is  smooth  except  near  the  end,  where 
it  has  hair  similar  to  that  on  the  tail  of  the  horse. 

The  burro,  a  small  type  of  donkey,  is  popular  in  moun- 
tainous sections  of  America.  It  is  not  much  larger  than 
the  Shetland  pony,  and  is  used  chiefly  as  a  pack  animal. 
Its  patience,  strength,  and  faithfulness  make  it  especially 
valuable. 


THE   MULE 

The  mule  is  the  hybrid  cross  of  the  donkey  and  horse. 

The  characteristics  of  the  donkey  and  the  horse  are 
combined  in  the  mule.  The  mule  has  long  ears  like  the 
donkey,  brays  like  him,  and  has  narrow  feet  quite  similar 
to  those  of  the  donkey.     However,  there  is  more  symmetry 


MULES 


103 


I04  BREEDS  OF  HORSES 

of  body  and  quality  in  the  joints  and  bones  of  the  mule. 
The  mule  has  a  more  nearly  cylindrical  body  and  is  colored 
more  like  the  horse. 

Plantation  Mules  are  the  best  and  highest  priced  mules 
on  the  market.  They  range  from  14  to  16  hands  in  height 
and  from  iioo  to  1400  pounds  in  weight.  They  are  called 
''  sugar  "  mules  or  ''  cotton  "  mules  according  to  the  use 
to  which  they  are  to  be  put  on  the  plantation.  The  sugar 
mules  are  the  larger  and  bring  the  higher  prices. 

Lumber  Mules  stand  from  15^  to  17  hands  high  and 
are  used  for  hard,  rough  work  in  the  woods.  Extra  quality 
is  not  so  essential  as  strength  and  ruggedness. 

Railroad  Mules  are  somewhat  smaller  and  lighter  than 
lumber  mules,  being  about  15-5-  to  16-5-  hands  high,  and 
weighing  from  1200  to  1500  pounds.  They  are  used  for 
work  in  grading  railroads  and  must  be  strong  and  of 
good  quahty. 

Levee  Mules  are  of  about  the  same  size  as  railroad  mules, 
but  are  of  better  quahty.  They  must  be  strong  and  rugged 
to  stand  the  heavy  work  exacted  of  them  at  the  wharves. 

Mine  Mules  are  small,  ranging  in  height  from  11  to  15^ 
hands.  Since  their  work  is  hard  they  must  be  chunky  and 
strong.  In  order  that  they  may  work  back  into  the  drifts 
they  need  to  be  small. 

The  mule  is  resistant  to  disease  and  stands  hot  weather 
better  than  does  the  horse.  Female  mules  are  superior  to 
males  for  all  purposes.  They  mature  earHer,  are  quieter, 
and  fatten  more  easily. 

EXERCISES 

I.  What  are  the  English  breeds  of  draft  horses?  How  do 
they  differ  from  the  French  breed? 


EXERCISES 


105 


2.  Classify  draft  horses  as  to  smooth  leg  breeds,  hairy  leg 
breeds. 

3.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  each  breed 
of  horses? 

4.  Study  the  horses  on  the  street  to  see  if  you  can  detect 
breed  characteristics. 

HOME   PROJECTS 

Study  the  home  horses  and  those  of  your  neighbors  and  see 
how  many  breed  characteristics  you  can  detect.  By  these  de- 
termine, if  possible,  their  breed  ancestry. 


CHAPTER   VII 
BREEDS    OF    CATTLE 

CLASSIFICATION  OF   CATTLE 

According  to  type,  cattle  are  classed  as  beef,  dairy, 
and  dual  purpose  cattle. 

The  beef  breeds  are  Shorthorn,  Polled  Durham,  Hereford, 
Polled  Hereford,  Aberdeen  Angus,  Galloway,  and  West 
Highland. 

The  dairy  breeds  are  Holstein,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  Ayr- 
shire, Brown  Swiss,  Dutch  Belted,  French-Canadian,  and 
Kerry. 

The  most  common  dual  purpose  breeds  are  Red  Poll 
and  Devon. 

SHORTHORN 

Shorthorn  cattle  are  sometimes  called  the  reds,  the  whites, 
and  the  roans,  because  these  are  the  colors  common  to 
them.  Originating  in  northern  England  in  the  fertile 
counties  of  Durham  and  Northumberland,  this  breed  is 
sometimes  called  Durham,  but  modern  usage  makes 
Shorthorn  the  correct  name. 

History.  —  The  foundation  stock  of  this  breed  were 
called  "  Teeswater  "  cattle.  They  were  of  no  particular 
color,  and  not  especially  uniform  in  type  and  quahty.  The 
Colling  Brothers  were  among  the  earliest  men  to  do  con- 
sistent work  in  improving  the  breed.     They  were  followed 

1 06 


SHORTHORN   CATTLE  107 

by  Thomas  Booth,  who  developed  large  cattle  that  were 
wide  over  the  back  and  hips,  but  lacked  in  quality.  The 
next  man  of  note  was  Thomas  Bates,  who  aimed,  by  care- 
ful selection  and  mating,  to  establish  a  strain  of  cattle  that 
was  large  and  of  good  quality.  The  Bates  cattle,  as  they 
are  called,  had  very  short  horns,  fine  heads,  smooth,  sym- 
metrical bodies,  and  were  useful  for  milking  purposes.  Mr. 
Bates  succeeded  in  establishing  several  families  of  this 
type,  which  were  eagerly  sought  after  both  in  England  and 
America.  He  was  a  good  showman  and  believed  in  exten- 
sive advertising.  The  most  famous  family  he  ever  pro- 
duced was  the  Duchess  family.  One  of  this  family,  a  cow 
named  ''  Eighth  Duchess  of  Geneva,"  in  1873  sold  for 
$40,600  at  public  auction  in  New  York  State,  a  record- 
breaking  price  for  a  cow. 

While  the  Bates  cattle  were  strong  evidence  of  what 
can  be  accomplished  in  the  breeding  line,  they  were  lack- 
ing in  hardiness  under  unfavorable  conditions.  In  develop- 
ing the  strain,  Mr.  Bates  had  done  considerable  inbreed- 
ing and  the  constitutions  of  the  cattle  were  thus  impaired. 
Amos  Cruickshank  was  a  farsighted  Scotchman  who 
looked  forward  to  the  time  when  there  would  be  a  large 
demand  for  beef  cattle  on  the  vast  ranges  of  the  western 
part  of  the  United  States,  and  in  the  Argentine  of  South 
America.  So  he  set  to  work  to  develop  from  the  Short- 
horns a  purely  beef  strain  of  cattle.  He  selected  only 
those  of  most  nearly  perfect  conformation,  and  in  time 
developed  a  beefier  strain  than  were  the  Bates  cattle. 
The  cold  climate  of  Scotland  made  the  cattle  hardier  than 
the  Enghsh  cattle  were ;  they  matured  earlier ;  and  it  was 
not  long  until  the  Scotch  cattle,  as  they  were  called,  be- 
came popular  in  the  show  ring.     Sometimes  they  are  called 


io8  BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 

"  Cruickshank  "  cattle  in  honor  of  the  man  who  was  the 
first  to  develop  them. 

Shorthorn  cattle  are  the  most  widely  distributed  of  any 
breed  of  cattle  and  can  be  found  in  all  parts  of  the  civilized 
world.  As  beef  animals  they  are  in  the  foremost  rank. 
Some  of  the  cows  are  very  good  milkers.  About  95  per  cent 
of  the  milk  produced  in  the  British  Isles  is  from  Shorthorn 


Fig.  31.  —  "  Roan  Queen,"  a  Champion  Shorthorn  heifer. 

COWS.  In  this  country  milking  strains  of  Shorthorn  cattle 
are  held  in  favor  by  some  farmers,  since  they  produce  a 
liberal  supply  of  milk  and  a  calf  that  can  be  sold  for  beef 
at  a  good  price.  Such  animals  are  known  as  ^'  milking 
Shorthorns,"  and  are  dual  purpose  cattle. 

Characteristics.  —  The  colors  of  the  Shorthorn  are  red, 
white,  and  roan  (a  mixture  of  red  and  white  hairs) .  The  roan 
color  is  now  much  in  favor  on  the  market.  Good  bulls  of 
this  breed  weigh  up  to  2000  or  2200  pounds  when  mature. 
Bulls  have  been  known  to  weigh  up  to  3000  pounds,  but 


POLLED   DURHAM   CATTLE  109 

these  cases  are  rare  and  this  great  weight  is  not  desirable. 
Good  cows  weigh  from  1400  to  1600  pounds. 

THE   POLLED   DURHAM 

The  Polled  Durham  breed  of  beef  cattle  have  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  Shorthorns,  but  are  without  horns.  There 
are  two  distinct  types :  the  Double  Standard  and  the  Single 
Standard  Polled  Durhams.  The  Double  Standards  were  ob- 
tained by  saving  for  breeding  purposes  hornless  Shorthorn 
''  freaks  "  which  occasionally  appeared.  The  Single  Stand- 
ard resulted  from  the  efforts  of  various  men  to  produce 
hornless  cattle  that  possessed  the  type  of  the  Shorthorn. 
Both  the  Single  and  Double  Standard  Polled  Durhams  can 
be  recorded  in  the  Polled  Durham  herd  book,  and  the  Double 
Standard  Polled  Durhams  can  be  recorded  in  the  Shorthorn 
herd  book  as  well,  because  they  are  pure  bred  Shorthorns 
according  to  the  generally  accepted  definition  of  the  term. 


Fig.  32.  —  Polled  Durham  bull. 


no 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 


In  judging  the  Polled  Durham  cattle  the  same  type  is 
desired  as  is  sought  for  in  the  Shorthorn.  These  cattle 
are  now  attaining  a  high  degree  of  excellence  and  will 
gradually  improve  as  the  number  of  breeding  animals 
increases. 

THE  HEREFORD 

History.  —  Hereford  cattle  originated  in  the  county  or 
shire  of  Hereford,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  England. 
They  are  easily  recognized  by  their  color  markings.  The 
color  is  red  with  white  face,  white  on  the  underHne  and  on 


Fig.  33.  —  Hereford  yearlings. 


the  neck  back  to  the  shoulders.  This  color  is  so  striking 
that  the  cattle  are  often  spoken  of  as  ''  White  Faces." 
There  are,  of  course,  variations  from  these  general  color 
markings,  but  in  a  mixed  lot  of  cattle  an  amateur  can  easily 
pick  out  the  Herefords  by  their  white  faces  and  red  bodies. 


HEREFORD   CATTLE  iii 

Characteristics.  —  This  breed  is  strictly  a  beef  breed 
and  the  fanciers  make  no  claim  to  milking  qualities,  al- 
though there  is  occasionally  a  cow  that  is  a  good  milker. 


Fig.  34.  —  Horned  Hereford  bull. 

Herefords  are  very  hardy  and  have  become  famous  in  this 
country  on  the  ranges.  As  grazing  cattle  they  are  excel- 
lent and  are  said  to  be  the  logical  successors  to  the  bujBfalo. 
Because  the  man  who  lives  in  the  corn  belt  has  in  the  past 
few  years  looked  to  the  range  to  furnish  feeding  cattle,  the 
Herefords  have  become  very  common  in  the  feed  lots, 
where  they  make  good  gains  on  feed,  and  finish  off  well. 
They  are  now  distributed  over  the  world  wherever  good 
grazing  ground  is  obtainable,  and  large  herds  of  them  are 
to  be  found  in  Argentina,  where  they  are  raised  to  supply 
the  British  demand  for  beef. 

Because  they  have  so  long  been  reared  under*  such  natu- 
ral conditions,  they  have  developed  thickness  through  the 
fore  quarters,  and  have  become  somewhat  lighter  in  the  rear 
quarters,  a  fault,  however,  not  found  in  the  better  Herefords. 


112 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 


POLLED  HEREFORDS 

The  Herefords  have  large  horns,  a  serious  objection. 
Most  of  them  are  dehorned  before  they  go  into  the  feed  lot. 
To  do  away  with  the  dehorning,  men  have  developed  within 
the  ranks  of  the  Hereford  breed  a  polled  strain.  Because 
there  were  so  few  of  them,  inbreeding  had  to  be  resorted 
to.     Thus  the  t}'pe  evolved  is  not  so  good  as  the  best  Here- 


Fig-  35-  —  Polled  Hereford  bull. 


fords,  although  as  the  numbers  increase,  the  t>T>e  will 
doubtless  improve.  The  strain  established  within  the 
ranks  of  the  breed  is  known  as  "  Double  Standard  Polled 
Hereford  "  and  is  eligible  to  register  in  the  Hereford  Herd 
Book.  The  "  Single  Standard  Polled  Hereford  "  was  es- 
tablished   by    crossing    horned    Herefords    with    common 


ABERDEEN   ANGUS   CATTLE  113 

hornless  cows.  The  progeny  were  polled  and  having  the 
white  face  of  the  Hereford  were  called  Polled  Herefords. 
This  strain  is  not  eligible  to  register  in  the  Hereford  Herd 
Book. 

THE   ABERDEEN  ANGUS 

History.  —  The  Aberdeen  Angus  breed,  sometimes  called 
''  Doddies,"  developed  in  northeastern  Scotland,  and 
some  of  the  best  of  them  are  produced  there  to-day.     They 


Fig.  36.  —  Aberdeen  Angus  cow. 

are  characterized  by  their  black  color  and  polled  heads, 
and  are  sometimes  confused  with  the  Galloways, — another 
black,  hornless  beef  breed  produced  in  Scotland.  With  a 
little  experience,  one  is  able  to  distinguish  between  these 
two  breeds,  as  the  Angus  is  smoother  and  has  better  quality 
than  the  Galloway. 

Angus  cattle  produce  the  best  meat,  and  in  show  yard 
circles,  where  all  beef  breeds  compete,  carry  off  more  honors 

T.    AND   L.    ANLVIAL   HUSB. 8 


114  BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 

than  any  other  breed.  Besides  winning  over  60  per  cent 
of  the  grand  champion  honors,  they  have  won  more  than 
half  the  championship  honors  for  car  lots  and  carcasses  at 
the  Chicago  International  Live  Stock  Expositions.  They 
are  very  popular  in  the  feed  lot,  and  have  met  with  much 
favor  on  the  range,  although  they  are  not  so  numerous 
there  as  are  the  Herefords. 

Characteristics.  —  They  are  very  compact  in  type  ;  their 
bodies  are  cylindrical,  and  contain  great  weight  in  propor- 
tion to  the  surface  of  the  body.  When  fat,  they  are  de- 
ceptive, weighing  heavily  for  their  apparent  size.  When 
mature,  the  bulls  weigh  from  2000  to  2200  pounds  and  the 
mature  cows  weigh  from  1400  to  1600  pounds. 

THE   GALLOWAY 

History.  —  Galloway  cattle  originated  in  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  Scotland  where  the  best  types  of  the  breed  are  to 
be  found  to-day.  The  early  history  of  the  Galloways  is  not 
well  known,  but  it  is  stated  that  they  were  found  by  the  Ro- 
mans when  they  visited  Scotland  about  the  fourth  century. 

Characteristics.  —  They  have  many  things  in  common 
with  the  Aberdeen  Angus.  Both  breeds  are  black,  both 
are  polled,  but  the  Galloways  are  somewhat  smaller  and 
have  long  shaggy  coats  of  hair.  They  are  very  hardy, 
and  valuable  for  a  rough  country  with  a  severe  climate. 
Their  hides,  because  of  the  long  hair  they  carry,  are  valuable 
for  robes  and  coats.  As  yet,  they  have  not  attained  the 
popularity  enjoyed  by  the  Aberdeen  Angus  cattle. 

The  Galloways  are  valuable  in  the  feed  lot,  and  may  be  on 
the  range.  They  are  very  prepotent  and  readily  transmit 
their  characters  to  their  offspring,  making  them  useful  for 
grading  up  a  beef  herd. 


HIGHLAND   CATTLE 


115 


Fig-  37-  —  Galloway  bull. 


THE   WEST  HIGHLAND    CATTLE 

West  Highland  cattle  are  produced  in  greatest  numbers 
in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  where  they  originated.  They 
are  easily  distinguished  fey  the  dun  color,  rugged  appear- 
ance, long  shaggy  coats  of  hair,  heavy  horns,  and  the  blocky 
conformation  of  their  bodies. 

In  Scotland  they  are  well  liked  for  the  quality  of  beef 
which  they  produce,  and  for  their  ability  to  thrive  at  little 
expense  in  the  mountainous  sections.  It  is  said  they  are 
the  only  breed  of  cattle  that  will  stand  and  face  a  storm. 
They  have  never  attained  great  popularity  in  America. 
There  is  scarcely  any  demand  for  them,  so  that  their  impor- 
tation to  this  country  has  not  been  encouraged.  Under 
natural  conditions,  they  run  in  the  open  practically  all  the 
year,  and  this  free  and  open  life  has  made  them  somewhat 
nervous  and  wild  when  put  into  the  feed  lot.     Under  native 


ii6 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 


HOLSTEIN   CATTLE  117 

conditions,  they  are  small,  but  they  have  been  quite  suc- 
cessful in  competition  with  other  breeds  for  show-yard 
honors. 

HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  CATTLE 

Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  commonly  called  "  Holsteins," 
originated  in  the  small  and  thickly  settled  European  coun- 
try of  the  Netherlands,  a  large  part  of  which  is  below  the 
level  of  the  sea  and  which  has  been  reclaimed  from  it. 
The  land  is  low  and  wet  and  the  climate  is  very  moist, 
ideal  conditions  for  the  growth  of  pasture  grass. 

History.  —  The  early  history  of  the  Holstein  is  not 
definitely  known,  but  records  show  that  large  producing 
cows  were  common  to  that  part  of  Europe  over  1000  years 
ago.  From  this  breed  sprung  some  of  the  most  important 
breeds  of  Denmark,  Germany,  and  Belgium.  The  early 
Dutch  settlers  brought  some  of  these  cattle  to  the  United 
States.  Large  black  and  white  cattle  were  numerous  in 
the  New  England  States  over  200  years  ago. 

Characteristics.  —  Holsteins  are  easily  recognized  by 
their  black  and  white  color  and  their  great  size.  Bulls 
weighing  up  to  2500  or  2600  pounds  in  moderate  flesh  are 
not  unusual,  though  those  weighing  around  a  ton  are  more 
desirable.  Cows  will  weigh  up  to  1800  or  1900  pounds,  but 
the  most  common  weights  run  from  1250  to  1450  pounds. 
Holstein  calves  are  very  large,  and  their  high  birth  weights 
make  them  desirable  for  veal  purposes. 

The  cows  are  the  heaviest  yielders  of  milk  of  any  dairy 
breed.  Good  cows  produce  on  the  average  10,000  pounds 
of  milk  annually,  while  some  have  produced  over  30,000 
pounds  in  a  single  year.  Farmers  like  the  cows  because 
they  are  large  and  strong,  which  gives  them  the  capacity 


ii8 


BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 


to  consume  large  quantities  of  roughage  and  return  large 
quantities  of  milk.  The  objection  often  raised  against 
Holstein  cows  is  that  their  milk  is  not  high  enough  in  fat 
content,  the  average  for  the  breed  running  about  3^  per 
cent.  This  low  test  is  offset,  however,  by  the  large  yield, 
so  that  the  Holstein  also  makes  a  good  butter  cow. 

Holstein  fanciers  make  some  claims  for  the  beef  qualities 
of  the  breed,  but  the  markets  discriminate  against  the  black 
and  white  color.  However,  one  can  sell  the  cows  after 
they  have  done  a  life  service  in  yielding  milk  for  more 
money  than  can  be  realized  for  smaller  cows.  These 
cattle  are  becoming  more  and  more  popular  throughout 
the  country  and  good  prices  for  them  prevail. 

JERSEY   CATTLE 

The  native  home  of  the  Jersey  is  the  Island  of  Jersey, 
from  which  the  breed  derives   its  name.     This  island  is 


p 

l«. 

^ ,  -rj/M 

Fig-  39-        Jersey  co\ 


JERSEY   CATTLE  119 

one  of  the  Channel  Islands,  located  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel between  England  and  France.  The  Island  of  Jersey  is 
only  eleven  miles  long  and  six  miles  wide,  and  contains  a 
population  so  dense  that  the  size  of  the  farms  is  very  small, 
and  all  the  possible  farming  land  must  be  utilized  to  the 
best  advantage.  The  climate  is  temperate  and  moist,  and 
the  people  are  very  industrious.  In  the  midst  of  such 
surroundings  was  developed  one  of  the  best  butter  breeds 
of  the  world. 

History.  —  The  methods  employed  by  the  natives  in 
developing  this  breed  of  cattle  are  interesting.  They  kept 
for  breeding  purposes  only  those  cows  that  produced  a 
good  supply  of  butter,  paying  little  attention  at  first  to 
the  amount  of  milk  given  by  the  cows.  Later,  however, 
they  began  selecting  cows  for  milk  flow  as  well  as  for  but- 
ter production,  and  in  that  way  developed  the  milking 
qualities.  Selecting  for  butter  production  developed  cattle 
that  gave  rich  milk,  and  the  cows  still  retain  that  quality. 
Another  thing  the  people  of  the  island  did  was  to  prohibit 
the  importation  of  outside  breeds  into  the  island,  and  in 
this  way  the  cattle  were  kept  pure.  The  government  also 
helped  the  industry  by  placing  premiums  upon  the  best 
cows  and  bulls,  which  premium  had  to  be  refunded  if  they 
were  sold  to  leave  the  island.  Certain  good  animals  were 
also  kept  in  communities  where  the  poorer  farmers  could 
make  use  of  them  for  the  improvement  of  their  herds. 

Characteristics.  —  In  size,  the  Jersey  is  the  smallest  of 
the  well-known  dairy  breeds,  the  cows  weighing  from  700 
to  1000  pounds  and  the  bulls  ranging  around  1400  to  1600 
pounds  in  weight.  While  their  small  size  is  often  raised 
as  an  objection  to  them,  they  are  very  economical  pro- 
ducers.    Jersey  cows  have  proven  themselves  able  to  com- 


I20  BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 

pete  with  other  breeds  in  actual  production  of  butter  fat 
for  a  year's  time.  Their  color  is  variable,  ranging  from 
light  fawn  to  heavy  dun  or  black.  Breeders  have  never 
paid  so  much  attention  to  color  as  they  have  to  form  and 
performance,  but  broken  colors  are  very  undesirable. 
Black  at  the  extremities  is  desirable.  In  form  the  Jerseys 
are  pretty  cattle.  The  cows  have  neat  heads,  and  very 
fawnlike  necks.  The  eye  is  large  and  prominent,  and  the 
ear  is  neatly  carried.  The  shoulders  are  slight,  the  back- 
bone prominent,  the  barrel  of  liberal  size,  the  udder  large, 
well  shaped,  and  proportioned,  with  the  teats  well  placed 
and  of  convenient  size.  The  good  animals  are  quite  uni- 
form as  to  type.  The  bulls  display  a  great  deal  of  vigor, 
and  are  very  active  and  highly  organized.  This  latter 
characteristic  makes  them  undesired  by  some,  because  if 
not  carefully  handled,  they  may  become  vicious. 

The  principal  weaknesses  of  the  breed  are  lack  of  size, 
and  consequent  lack  of  constitution.  Some  of  the  Ameri- 
can bred  cattle,  however,  have  sufficient  size  and  as  good 
constitutions  as  any  other  dairy  breed. 

GUERNSEY  CATTLE 

Guernsey  cattle  were  developed  on  the  Island  of  Guern- 
sey, a  sister  island  to  the  Island  of  Jersey.  Guernsey  is 
smaller  than  Jersey,  and  not  nearly  so  many  cattle  can  be 
produced  on  it.  While  Guernsey  cattle  were  introduced 
into  America  at  an  earlier  date  than  the  Jersey,  they  were 
not  so  popular,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  were  not  ad- 
vertised so  much  during  the  earlier  days,  and  could  not  be 
produced  on  the  island  fast  enough  to  fill  the  demand. 

Their  development,  while  similar  in  essentials  to  the 
development   of   Jerseys,    differs   in   some   respects.     The 


GUERNSEY   CATTLE 


121 


people  of  the  Island  of  Guernsey  are  very  busily  engaged  in 
raising  flowers  and  garden  supplies  for  the  big  markets  of 
London.  The  cattle  have  been  allowed  for  the  most 
part  to  evolve  naturally.  Their  origin  seems  to  be  a  cross 
between  the  big  red  cattle  of  Normandy,  and  the  little 
black  cows  of  Brittany.  The  characteristics  of  the  Nor- 
mandy cattle  predominate.     For  almost  a  century,  no  out- 


Fig.  40,  —  Guernsey  cow. 

side  cattle  have  been  imported  into  the  island.     Thus  they 
have  been  kept  pure. 

The  first  importation  into  America  was  about  1833. 
No  great  impetus  was  given  to  the  breed  until  the  World's 
Fair  in  Chicago,  when  in  the  public  test  they  took  their 
place  along  with  the  Jerseys  as  economical  producers 
of  butter  fat,  and  with  the  other  dairy  breeds  as  producers 
of  totaf  milk  solids.  Their  strongest  point  is  that  they 
yield  a  finely  flavored  product  of  the  best  natural  color. 


122  BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 

Characteristics.  —  Guernseys  are  somewhat  larger  than 
Jerseys.  The  cows,  when  mature,  should  weigh  about  1050 
pounds,  and  the  bulls  about  1500  pounds.  The  hair 
is  a  shade  of  fawn  with  white  markings,  the  nose  cream 
colored,  and  the  horns  amber  colored,  curving,  and  not 
coarse.  The  skin  should  be  rich  in  yellow  secretions,  indi- 
cating richness  in  the  color  of  the  products.  In  general 
type  they  conform  closely  to  that  of  the  Jersey.  Great 
stress  is  placed  on  the  type  and  shape  of  the  udder.  They 
have  an  even  temperament,  and  the  bulls  are  easily 
handled. 

AYRSHIRES 

History.  —  Ayrshire  cattle  are  the  dairy  breed  of  south- 
ern Scotland  and  one  of  the  prominent  breeds  in  America. 
They  are  a  hardy  breed  that  give  a  liberal  supply  of  milk 
on  grass  or  scanty  rations. 

These  cattle  were  brought  to  America  at  an  early  date 
and  remained  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  to 
which  section  they  were  confined  for  many  years.  The 
first  real  impetus  that  was  given  to  the  breed  was  at  the 
time  of  the  World's  Fair  in  Chicago  in  1893.  Two  types  of 
Ayrshire  cattle  were  shown ;  one  from  Canada,  the  other 
from  the  Eastern  States.  The  cattle  which  came  from 
Canada  had  straighter  backs  and  their  colors  were  not  so 
badly  broken,  with  white  predominating.  They  were  a 
trifle  longer  legged,  but  their  bodies  were  rounder  and  more 
symmetrical.  The  shape  of  the  udder  had  been  given  par- 
ticular attention,  and  for  uniformity  in  this  respect  the 
Canadian  type  was  unsurpassed.  The  udders  were  well 
held  up  neatly  in  front  and  behind,  and  the  teats,  while 
quite  short,  were  well  placed  at  the  corners  of  the  udder. 


AYRSHIRE   CATTLE 


123 


The  cows  also  carried  their  width  well  out  at  the  rear,  giv- 
ing them  a  beautiful  form.  At  this  show  the  Canadian  or 
Scotch  type  won  the  favor  of  the  judge  and  this  type  of 


Fig.  41.  — Ayrshire  cow. 

Ayrshire  has  now  become  the  fashionable  one  in  show-yard 
circles. 

Characteristics.  —  The  colors  of  the  Ayrshire  are  various 
shades  of  red  or  brown,  with  white,  mahogany  and  white, 
or  white,  with  each  color  clearly  defined.  Brindle  is 
allowed,  but  is  undesirable.  At  the  present  time  the 
white  color  should  predominate.  While  the  dairy  type  is 
preferred,  it  is  not  so  greatly  sought  after  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Jersey,  Guernsey,  or  Holstein,  particular  emphasis  being 
placed  upon  beauty  of  form,  symmetry,  smoothness, 
straightness  of  lines,  and  uniformity  of  udder  and  placing 


124 


BREEDS  OF   CATTLE 


of  teats.  Ayrshires  should  also  show  considerable  style, 
and  while  they  should  not  be  nervous,  the  eye  should 
be  clear,  and  indicative  of  health  and  constitution.  Bulls 
should  weigh  not  less  than  1500  pounds  and  cows  not  less 
than  1000  pounds  when  mature. 


BROWN  SWISS   CATTLE 

History.  —  As  implied  by  the  name,  this  breed  of  cattle 
originated  in  Switzerland.     They  are  said  to  have  descended 


Fig.   42.     -  Brown  Swiss  cow. 

from  the  Brown  Switzer,  an  old  breed  found  in  the  more 
mountainous  sections  of  this  mountainous  country.  No  one 
man  stands  out  prominently  as  a  developer  of  the  breed. 
These  cattle  were  evolved  by  the  nation  as  the  breed  best 
suited  to   the   conditions  under  which   they    live.      Gen- 


BROWN   SWISS   CATTLE  125 

erally  they  are  grazed  on  the  mountains  in  the  summer  and 
taken  back  to  the  valleys  in  the  winter  and  fed  upon  hay. 
The  rough  topography  of  the  country  and  the  rigors  of  the 
climate  naturally  called  for  a  hardy  breed.  The  cows  are 
also  used  for  work  animals,  which  tends  to  make  them 
strong  and  muscular^  oftentimes  coarse. 

Characteristics.  —  Brown  Swiss  cattle  are  quite  large, 
bulls  weighing  1800  pounds  and  cows  1200  pounds  when 
mature  and  properly  developed.  The  calves  are  large 
when  born,  ranking  next  to  the  Holstein  calves  in  weight. 
At  one  time  the  Brown  Swiss  were  classed  as  dual  purpose 
cattle,  but  now  they  are  regarded  as  one  of  the  special 
dairy  breeds.  As  yet  they  lack  the  extreme  dairy  type  of 
the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys,  and  are  not  so  uniform.  In 
color  they  are  a  light  to  dark  chestnut  brown,  with  a 
light  tuft  of  hair  between  the  horns  on  the  inside  of  the 
ears,  and  a  narrow  line  along  the  back.  The  nose  is 
black  with  a  meal-colored  band  around  it.  The  horns, 
while  occasionally  coarse,  are  of  medium  size  and  length 
with  black  tips.  The  tail  is  long  with  a  heavy  black 
switch.  The  hoofs  and  tongue  are  black.  The  legs  are 
heavy  and  straight.  The  udder  is  large  and  should  be  well 
set,  carrying  large  well-placed  teats.  The  ribs  are  well 
sprung,  and  the  heart  girth  large,  indicating  good  consti- 
tution. 

DUTCH  BELTED   CATTLE 

History.  —  This  breed  of  dairy  cattle  which  originated  in 
the  Netherlands  is  easily  recognized  by  the  peculiar  and 
uniform  coloring.  The  two  colors  are  jet  black  and  pure 
white,  the  white  encircling  the  animal  as  a  belt  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  hips,  hence  the  name. 


126  BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 

While  their  history  is  not  so  well  known  as  that  of  some 
breeds,  it  is  said  that  about  1750  a  Dutch  nobleman  con- 
ceived the  idea  of  breeding  cattle  that  would  be  black  in 
color  with  white  belts  around  the  middle  of  the  body,  and 
from  his  foundation  the  breed  was  perfected.  They  were 
first  brought  to  America  about  1840,  when  P.  T.  Barnum, 
the  great  circus  man,  imported  a  few  to  take  with  his 
show.  After  1850  there  were  no  more  importations,  the 
principal  reason  being  that  they  were  difficult  to  obtain, 
which  accounts  for  their  scarcity  in  this  country  at  the 
present  time. 

Characteristics. —  In  size  these  cattle  are  medium,  mature 
bulls  weighing  up  to  2000  pounds,  and  mature  cows  weigh- 
ing from  900  to  1300  pounds.  In  type  they  are  of  the 
dairy  conformation.  They  have  good  dispositions,  and 
make  good  dairy  cows.  While  they  have  not  secured  any 
great  milk  records,  they  are  economical  producers  and  do 
well  on  rough  hilly  land. 

FRENCH-CANADIAN   CATTLE 

History.  —  This  breed  of  cattle  originated  in  Canada, 
being  descendants  of  cattle  from  Brittany  and  Normandy 
brought  over  by  the  early  French  settlers.  They  are  of 
the  same  origin  as  the  Jersey  cattle,  and  in  many  respects 
resemble  them,  although  the  more  rugged  climatic  condi- 
tions under  which  they  have  been  developed  have  made 
them  more  hardy.  They  are  economical  producers,  doing 
well  on  scant  rations. 

Characteristics.  —  These  cattle  are  quite  small,  the  cows 
when  fully  mature  weighing  from  700  to  900  pounds,  and 
the  bulls  about  1000  pounds.  In  color,  they  are  black, 
brown,  dark  brown,  with  or  without  a  yellow  stripe  along 


RED    POLLED    CATTLE  127 

the  back  and  around  the  muzzle.  They  may  also  be  fawn 
or  brindle  in  color,  and  white  under  the  belly,  on  the  fore- 
head, and  switch. 

KERRY   CATTLE 

Kerry  cattle  originated  in  the  Kerry  mountains  of  west- 
ern Ireland,  and  are  a  natural  product  of  the  environment 
in  which  they  have  lived  for  centuries.  They  are  one  of 
the  smallest  of  all  breeds  of  cattle,  the  sparse  grazing  ground 
and  the  harsh  climatic  conditions  working  together  to  make 
the  animals  undersized.  Bulls  weigh  from  800  to  1000 
pounds  and  mature  cows  weigh  from  500  to  600  pounds. 
These  figures  vary  according  to  care  and  food.  While 
the  cows  are  small,  and  on  this  account  are  not  popular, 
this  breed  produces  milk  and  butter  economically  and 
makes  good  returns  for  the  feed  consumed.  The  color  of 
the  breed  is  black,  but  red  may  occur.  In  general  con- 
formation they  incline  toward  the  dairy  type,  but  are  not 
so  extreme  in  this  respect  as  the  Jerseys,  being  short  of 
leg,  and  strong  through  the  heart. 

RED   POLLED   CATTLE 

History.  —  This  breed  of  cattle  is  the  principal  dual  pur- 
pose breed  of  cattle  in  America  to-day  and  ranks  very 
high  in  both  milk  and  butter  production.  It  originated 
in  the  counties  of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk,  England.  Back  as 
far  as  1778,  there  have  been  hornless  red  cattle  in  Norfolk 
county.  It  is  thought  that  the  "  muley "  cattle  that 
were  at  one  time  common  in  America,  and  from  which 
the  so-called  "  muley "  natives  sprang,  came  from  this 
source.     The  Suffolk  red  polled  cattle  were  of  the  dairy 


128 


BREEDS    OF    CATTLE 


Fig.  43.  —  Red  Polled  cow. 


type,  and  were  noted  for  their  milk  yield,  while  those  that 
were  common  in  Norfolk  had  smaller  bones,  shorter 
legs,  round  barrels,  good  loins,  and  rather  fine  heads,  which 
qualities  made  them  good  for  meat  production.  In  1846, 
the  two  strains  were  combined  to  form  the  dual  purpose 
cattle  now  known  as  Red  Polled.  The  first  regular  im- 
portation was  made  into  the  state  of  New  York  in  1873, 
and  since  that  time  their  spread  over  the  country  has  been 
rather  rapid.  While  they  have  never  been  popular  in 
the  corn  belt,  they  are  now  widely  distributed  in  some 
of  the  Western  States. 

Characteristics.  —  Red  Polled  cattle  are  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  solid  red  color  and  absence  of  horns.  White 
is  allowed  on  the  belly  and  udder  and  the  switch  of  the 
tail,  but  a  solid  color  is  preferred.  In  conformation  they 
have  not  the  extreme  beef  form  of  the  beef  breeds  nor  the 
pronounced  dairy  conformation  of    the    dairy  cattle.     In 


DEVON   CATTLE  129 

this  country,  they  are  tending  more  toward  the  dairy  type 
than  in  England,  because  they  are  being  developed  more 
strongly  along  the  milking  lines.  Some  very  good  steers 
are  annually  shown  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Ex- 
hibition, but  they  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  capturing  any 
championship  honors.  For  beef  purposes,  they  are  some- 
what coarse  in  the  neck,  high  at  the  tail,  thin  in  the 
thighs,  and  high  in  the  region  of  the  flank.  From  the 
standpoint  of  dairy  conformation  they  are  heavy  along 
the  back,  and  too  thick  in  the  thighs,  although  some  of 
the  cows  are  excellent  milkers.  The  steers  make  very 
profitable  gains  and  their  carcasses  make  excellent  meat. 

DEVON   CATTLE 

History.  —  While  Devon  cattle  are  oftentimes  classified 
with  beef  cattle,  they  have  not  been  very  popular  in  this 
country  in  competition  with  some  of  the  more  pronounced 
beef  breeds.  They  originated  in  the  county  of  Devon  in 
western  England  near  the  border  of  Wales,  where  for 
many  years  red  cattle  have  existed.  The  rough  country, 
and  the  rather  limited  supply  of  food  in  that  part  of  the 
island,  tended  to  produce  a  hardy  animal  that  was  well 
adapted  to  these  adverse  conditions.  Their  history  can 
be  traced  back  as  far  as  any  of  the  improved  breeds.  The 
first  well-known  improver  of  the  breed,  Francis  Quartly, 
began  his  work  on  these  cattle  in  1793. 

In  course  of  time  there  have  been  two  well-defined  types 
evolved.  The  North  Devon  type  is  compact,  hardy,  well 
adapted  to  rough  country,  and  the  carcass  is  good  for  beef. 
The  South  Devon  type  is  larger  and  coarser,  and  better 
adapted  to  the  production  of  both  beef  and  milk. 

T.    AND   L.    ANIMAL   HUSB. Q 


I30  BREEDS   OF   CATTLE 

They  were  introduced  into  America  at  an  early  date,  the 
English  colonists  bringing  them  over  as  early  as  1623. 
For  many  years  they  met  with  favor,  and  they  are  still 
raised  in  some  of  the  Eastern  States.  The  exhibits  made  at 
some  of  the  fairs  throughout  the  country  show  them  to  be 
a  breed  of  great  possibilities,  but  the  fanciers  have  not  made 
rapid  progress  in  developing  them  and  bringing  their  merits 
before  the  public. 

Characteristics.  —  The  Devons  are  quite  easily  recog- 
nized by  their  solid  red  color,  which  may  range  from  light 
to  dark.  They  have  orange  rings  around  the  eyes,  with 
white  on  the  tip  of  the  tail  and  on  the  udder  occasionally. 
The  score  card  calls  for  a  three-year-old  weight  of  not  less 
than  1400  pounds  for  the  bull,  and  1000  pounds  for  cows. 
In  conformation  the  American  animal  is  neither  of  extreme 
beef  nor  dairy  t>pe. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  breeds  of  dairy  cattle  have  black  noses,  tongues, 
horns,  and  hoofs  ? 

2.  Name  all  breeds  of  cattle  either  partially  or  wholly  black. 

3.  Make  a  list  of  the  red  breeds. 

4.  On  what  breeds  of  cattle  is  white  found  ? 

5.  Make  a  complete  list  of  the  hornless  breeds  of  cattle. 

6.  Classify  the  breeds  of  cattle  as  to  the  country  from  which 
they  come. 

HOME   PROJECT 

Study  the  home  herd  and  those  in  the  neighborhood  for  breed 
characteristics.  See  how  many  breeds  are  thus  suggested  in 
your  neighborhood.  It  must  be  remembered  that  character- 
istics of  two  or  more  breeds  may  often  be  found  in  the  same 
animal. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
BREEDS    OF    SHEEP    AND    GOATS 

Sheep  are  classified  according  to  their  wool  into  the  line 
wool,  the  medium  wool,  and  the  long  wool  breeds.  The 
medium  wool  and  the  long  wool  breeds  constitute  the 
mutton  breeds.  The  breeds  commonly  belonging  to  the 
fine  wool  class  are  the  American  Merino,  the  Delaine 
Merino,  and  the  Rambouillet.  Those  belonging  to  the 
medium  wool  class  are  the  Shropshire,  Oxford,  Hampshire, 
Southdown,  Cheviot,  Suffolk,  Dorset,  and  Tunis.  The 
breeds  belonging  to  the  long  wool  class  are  the  Lincoln, 
Leicester  (pronounced  Lester),  Cotswold,  Black  Faced 
Highland,  and  Kent  or  Romney  Marsh. 

Fine  wool  sheep  do  not  mature  until  the  age  of  three 
years,  but  the  medium  wool  breeds  are  mature  at  the 
age  of  two  years. 

THE   FINE   WOOL   BREEDS 

American  Merino.  —  This  is  the  name  applied  to  one 
type  of  the  Merino  sheep  which  originally  came  from  Spain. 
In  form,  these  sheep  are  of  poor  mutton  type,  having  been 
bred  for  the  fineness  of  wool  alone.  They  are  narrow  over 
the  back,  sharp  at  the  withers;  and  the  legs,  which  stand 
close  together,  are  crooked  and  often  long.  The  skin  is 
wrinkled  and  lies  in  folds,  especially  on  the  neck  and  in  the 
region  of  the  flank.     In  the  western  part  of  the  country 

131 


132 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


Fig.  44.  —  Merino  ram. 


they  have  been  bred  to  ^lexican  sheep  to  improve  the 
quality  of  the  wool  of  the  latter.  Merinos  are  hardy  and 
can  endure  both  the  heat  of  the  south  and  the  cold  of  the 
north.  They  can  be  handled  in  large  flocks,  which  is  a 
decided  advantage  on  the  range.  The  rams  have  strong 
twisted  horns,  while  the  ewes  are  hornless.  Rams  weigh  from 
100  to  175  pounds  and  ewes  weigh  from  80  to  100  pounds. 

The  Delaine.  —  This  breed  has  been  developed  in 
America  by  selecting  from  the  larger  Merinos  the  smoothest 
sheep  with  longest  and  coarsest  wool. 

The  wool  has  less  oil  and  coarser  crimp  or  kink  than 
that  of  the  American  Merino.  However,  the  quality  of 
the  mutton  is  higher  and  the  lambs  fatten  and  mature  much 
better.  The  horned  rams  weigh  from  140  to  200  pounds, 
while  the  hornless  ewes  weigh  from  100  to   150  pounds. 


RAMBOUILLET   SHEEP 


133 


Breeders  of  Delaines  frequently  select  breeding  stock  from 
the  ranks  of  the  American  Merino  to  obtain  improvement 
in  wool  and  from  the  Rambouillet  to  increase  the  size  of 
their  sheep. 

The  Rambouillet.  —  This  breed  of  sheep  was  developed 
in  France  near  the  village  of  Rambouillet,  hence  the  name. 
The  work  of  improvement  was  first  carried  on  by  the 
French  Government.  From  France  some  good  specimens 
were  taken  to  Germany,  where  large  flocks  are  now  estab- 
lished and  considerable  improvement  is  still  being  made. 
These  sheep  are  larger  and  smoother  than  the  American 
Merino  and  have  a  mutton  carcass  superior  to  the  other 
fine  wool  breeds. 

In  America  the  Rambouillets  were  received  from  the  first 
with  much  favor.  The  breed  has  made  considerable  head- 
way on  the  ranges  because  they  can  be  herded  in  large 


Fig.  45.  —  Rambouillet  ram. 


134 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


flocks,  produce  a  liberal  clipping  of  good  wool,  and  give  a 
mutton  carcass  of  fair  quality.  Rams  of  this  breed  weigh 
from  170  to  185  pounds  and  may  be  either  horned  or  horn- 
less. The  ewes  are  hornless  and  should  weigh  from 
140  to  165  pounds.  Individuals,  both  male  and  female, 
may  run  much  heavier  than  these  weights. 


THE   MEDIUM   WOOL   BREEDS 

The  Shropshire.  —  The  Shropshire  is  the  most  popular 
of  the  English  breeds  of  sheep  and  is  found  not  only  in 
England,  the  United  States,  and  Canada  in  large  numbers, 
but  wherever  the  influence  of  British  agriculture  is  felt. 
The  sheep  are  valuable  for  the  mutton  which  they  yield, 
and  their  heavy  clippings  of  medium  wool.  So  well  de- 
veloped are  both  these  characters  in  this  breed,  that  Shrop- 
shire   are   often    called    dual    purpose    sheep.     The    rams 


Fig.  46.  —  Shropshire  ram. 


SHROPSHIRE   SHEEP 


135 


weigh  about  225  pounds  and  the  ewes  about  175  pounds 
when  mature.  Ewes  yield  about  8  pounds  of  wool  and 
rams  about  1 2  pounds  of  wool  at  each  clipping. 

The  form  of  the  Shropshire  is  that  of  a  typical  mutton 
sheep.     The  most  distinguishing  features  of  the  breed  are 


Fig.  47.  —  Shropshire  ewe. 

the  head  and  face.  The  wool  grows  down  over  the  face 
so  that  the  only  parts  of  the  head  exposed  are  the  ears  and 
the  tip  of  the  nose.  The  wool  also  grows  down  on  the  legs, 
so  that  "  Shropshire  sheep  are  wool  from  the  nose  to  the 
toes."  The  ears  are  small,  short,  and  straight.  The 
thickness  of  the  wool  around  the  head  gives  the  ears  the 
appearance  of  being  shorter  than  they  really  are.  The 
color  of  the  exposed  hair  is  dark  brown  and  the  skin  is  of  a 
very  healthy,  bright  pink  color.  The  wool,  while  of  medium 
thickness,  is  quite  dense,  and  should  have  no  tendency 
to  part  in  clusters  and  curls.  Shropshires  have  straight, 
strong,  wide  backs;     short,  wide,  thick  loins;     and  long, 


136 


BREEDS   OF   SHEEP  AND   GOATS 


level,  wide  rumps.  A  good  development  of  the  "  leg  o' 
mutton  "  is  also  necessary  in  good  types.  They  do  not 
thrive  well  in  large  flocks,  but  under  reasonable  care  are 
quite  hardy.  They  are  sometimes  called  the  farmer's 
ideal  sheep. 

The  Oxford.  —  These  sheep  originated  in  Oxfordshire, 
England,  and  were  not  recognized  as  a  distinct  breed  until 


Fig.  48.  —  Oxford  ram. 

1862,  the  first  year  they  were  awarded  prizes  at  the  Royal 
Show  of  England.  They  were  developed  through  a  desire 
on  the  part  of  some  men  to  estabUsh  a  breed  that  would 
combine  high  quality  with  large  size,  which  was  accom- 
plished by  crossing  the  long  wool  Cotswold  with  the 
medium  wool  Hampshire  and  adding  a  slight  infusion 
of  Southdown  blood.  The  result  is  a  breed  whose  wool 
is  the  longest  and  coarsest  of  all  the  medium  wool  breeds 


OXFORD   SHEEP  137 

and  whose  weight  is  the  heaviest.  They  have  never  yet 
succeeded  in  defeating  the  Southdown  and  the  Shropshire 
breeds  in  carcass  competition. 

Oxfords  have  longer  legs  than  other  medium  wool  sheep. 
The  color  of  the  hair  on  the  face  is  brown,  sometimes  with 
gray  spots,  somewhat  lighter  in  color  than  the  Shropshire; 
and  the  wool,  while  covering  the  head,  does  not  meet  on 
the  face  below  the  eyes.  The  ears  are  also  much  longer 
and  coarser  than  those  of  the  Shropshire. 

These  sheep  are  distributed  over  the  United  States, 
particularly  in  the  section  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north 
of  the  Ohio  River.  They  are  not  popular  on  the  range, 
because  they  do  not  do  well  in  large  flocks  and  are  not 
hardy  enough  for  range  conditions,  but  they  are  quite 
popular  with  the  farmer  who  keeps  a  small  flock.  The 
ewes  are  prolific,  and  the  lambs  develop  rapidly  and  attain 
a  good  weight  at  an  early  age,  which  makes  them  much 
admired  by  the  stock  buyer.  Rams  should  weigh  from 
250  to  350  pounds  and  ewes  from  180  to  275  pounds. 

The  Hampshire.  —  Hampshire  sheep  originated  in  Hamp- 
shire, England,  and  rank  next  to  Oxfords  in  popularity. 
Rams  weigh  about  250  pounds  when  mature,  and  ewes 
from  185  to  195  pounds.  These  sheep  are  not  so  long- 
legged  as  the  Oxfords.  They  have  fine  and  compact  fleeces, 
which  are  short  and  do  not  yield  a  great  deal  of  wool.  The 
hair  is  black,  and  the  skin  is  deep  purple  in  color.  A  great 
many  of  the  lambs  are  born  black,  but  after  the  fleece 
grows  they  become  white.  The  face,  not  covered  with  wool, 
is  black.  The  heavy  Roman  nose  gives  this  sheep  a  coarse 
appearance. 

The  breed  is  meeting  with  great  favor  in  America  be- 
cause the  lambs  mature  early.     They  are  prized  highly  for 


7,8  BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


Fig.  49.  —  Hampshire  ewe. 

early  spring  trade  an'd  bring  good  prices.  The  mutton  is 
of  good  quality  and  the  ewes  are  very  prolific  and  good 
milkers.  On  the  range  they  are  frequently  desired  for 
crossing  with  the  Merino.  Hampshire  sheep  are  quite 
widely  distributed  over  the  world  wherever  sheep  are 
raised. 

The  Southdown.  —  The  Southdown  is  the  oldest  es- 
tablished breed  of  mutton  sheep.  They  originated  in 
southeastern  England  upon  the  thin  chalk  soils  in  the  low 
hill  or  down  country.  Over  one  hundred  years  ago  these 
sheep  existed  pure,  and  through  the  efforts  of  two  pro- 
gressive EngHsh  farmers,  John  Ellman  and  Jonas  Webb, 
they  were  improved,  and  became  the  favorite  sheep  of 
royalty,  which  distinction  they  have  held  to  the  present 
day.     Some  of  the  best  sheep  are  produced  near  the  city 


SOUTHDOWN   SHEEP 


139 


of  Cambridge,  England,  the  home  of  Jonas  Webb,  where 
stands  a  large  monument  erected  to  his  memory,  because 
of  the  valuable  work  he  did  in  improving  both  sheep  and 
cattle. 

Southdowns  are  the  smallest  of  all  the  mutton  breeds, 
and  produce  the  finest  quahty  of  mutton.  Both  in  this 
country  and  in  England,  they  have  captured  more  cham- 
pionship carcass  prizes  than  any  other  breed  of  sheep.  In 
their  own  country,  reared  under  natural  conditions,  they 
are  the  hardiest  of  the  medium  wool  breeds. 

In  form,  they  are  very  plump,  low  down,  and  compact, 
and  weigh  very  heavy  because  of  their  solidity.  The  wool 
is  very  dense  and  of  good  quality,  being  the  finest  of  all 
the  medium  wools.  It  covers  the  top  of  the  head  and  the 
forehead,  but  does  not  meet  on  the  face  below  the  eyes. 
The  color  of  the  hair  on  the  face  is  a  dingy  gray,  white 


Fig.  50.  —  Southdown  ewe. 


I40       BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 

being  very  objectionable.     No  wool  is  found  on  the  legs 
below  the  knees. 

These  sheep  are  quite  widely  distributed  over  the  world. 
They  are  valuable  for  improving  the  common  stock  of  the 
country  and  for  producing  very  fine  mutton,  but  are  not 
always  popular  with  the  farmer,  because  of  their  small  size. 


1 

V 

M 

'^^  v^^ 

■EH^n^w^^^^^^^^MlRl^l^i 

1 

H 

Fig.  51.        Cheviot  ewe. 

The  Cheviot.  —  This  breed  developed  in  the  Cheviot 
Hills  of  Scotland.  Reared  under  natural  conditions  upon 
these  rugged  hills,  sheep  of  great  thrift  and  hardiness  have 
resulted.  Having  been  bred  pure  for  generations,  they 
come  true  to  type  and  are  very  prepotent. 

The  distinguishing  features  of  Cheviots  are  clean,  white 
faces  of  medium  length ;  bright  eyes ;  erect  alert  bear- 
ing ;  short,  compact  bodies  covered  with  compact  fleeces 


CHEVIOT   SHEEP  141 

of  clean,  white  color.  The  legs  are  short  and  straight,  and 
the  bones  are  flat,  not  rounded  as  is  the  case  of  the  down 
breeds  of  England.  The  wool  covers  the  neck  very  com- 
pactly, but  leaves  the  ears,  head,  and  face  exposed  and  clean. 
The  ears  are  held  very  erect,  which  gives  to  the  sheep  an 
alert  appearance. 

Cheviots  produce  a  fair  clipping  of  very  desirable,  clean 
wool  of  medium  quahty  and  length.  They  are  also  prized 
for  their  mutton.  While  their  meat  does  not  possess  the 
quahty  of  the  Southdown,  it  is  much  superior  to  that  of 
some  of  the  coarser  down  breeds  of  England.  They  are 
valuable  for  crossing  with  common  stock  and  their  hardi- 
ness makes  them  favorites  where  their  good  qualities  are 
known.     The  ewes  are  prolific  and  make  good  mothers. 

Rams,  bred  in  America,  should  weigh  from  175  to  200 
pounds,  and  ewes  about  150  pounds.  Imported  stock  will 
weigh  somewhat  less.  The  American  breeders  have  been 
selecting  the  more  compact  sheep,  and  have  been  paying 
more  attention  to  their  mutton  than  to  their  wool  qualities. 

The  Suffolk.  —  This  breed  originated  in  the  county  of 
Suffolk  in  the  eastern  part  of  England  and  is  the  result  of 
a  cross  between  native  sheep  and  the  Southdown  breeds. 
The  distinguishing  features  of  the  breed  are  the  black, 
smooth  face  free  from  wool ;  the  hornless  head ;  the  long, 
black,  smooth  legs,  and  long,  rangy  body  covered  with  fine 
wool.  They  can  easily  be  distinguished  from  the  Hamp- 
shire sheep,  which  have  heavier  noses  and  a  bolder  and  more 
alert  appearance. 

The  Dorset.  —  These  sheep  originated  in  the  county  of 
Dorset  in  the  south  of  England.  They  are  easily  dis- 
tinguished from  the  other  medium  wool  breeds  by  their 
horns.     This  is  the  only  breed  of  sheep  in  America  in  which 


142 


BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 


both  sexes  are  horned.  In  size  they  rank  between  the 
Shropshire  and  the  Southdown,  but  have  longer  legs,  and 
are  not  so  uniform  in  conformation  and  quality.  In  their 
native  country  they  have  been  kept  pure  longer  than  most 
breeds  of  English  sheep.  The  rams  weigh  about  200  pounds 
and  the  ewes  about  160  pounds  each. 


Fig.  52.  —  Dorset  ram. 


The  hair  of  this  breed  is  pure  white,  the  skin  pink,  and 
the  wool  which  is  short  but  of  good  quality  covers  the  body 
closely  and  compactly,  the  head  and  face  only  being  free 
from  wool. 

They  are  well  distributed  over  the  world.  In  this 
country  they  are  popular  because  the  ewes  are  very  pro- 
lific, and  will  produce  two  crops  of  lambs  per  year.  The 
mothers  are  good  milkers  and  the  lambs  grow  rapidly. 
They  are  very  useful  for  producing  winter  lambs  which 


LONG  WOOL  BREEDS  143 

may  be  ready  for  market  at  a  time  of  the  year  when  fresh 
lamb  is  a  delicacy  and  brings  high  prices. 

The  Tunis.  —  This  breed  originated  in  the  upland  region 
of  Tunis  in  northern  Africa.  They  are  sometimes  called 
"  fat-tailed  "  sheep  because  the  tail  is  broad,  being  five  to 
ten  inches  wide.  They  were  once  raised  for  that  reason, 
and  very  fat  tails  were  sought  in  the  breeding  stock.  They 
were  first  brought  to  this  country  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  The  breed  is  generally  hornless  and 
the  legs  are  brown  or  of  tawny  color.  The  wool  is  of 
variable  color,  and  scant  in  quantity.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  they  are  not  received  with  great  favor.  The  ewes  are 
quite  prolific,  and  the  lambs  are  good  for  mutton  purposes. 

At  present  they  are  being  exploited  for  use  in  some  of  the 
semiarid  sections  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  United 
States. 

THE   LONG   WOOL   BREEDS 

The  long  wool  breeds  of  sheep  are  larger  and  coarser 
than  the  medium  wool  breeds,  and  have  longer  legs. 
While  they  fatten  readily,  the  meat  is  coarser  and  lacks 
the  marbling  found  in  the  carcasses  of  the  medium  wool 
sheep.  The  body  is  long  and  rangy  and  the  fleece,  while 
having  longer  staple,  lacks  compactness.  The  long  wools 
are  generally  developed  in  low  flat  regions  where  there  is 
an  abundance  of  rainfall  and  luscious  pasture.  They  are 
not  so  hardy  as  the  medium  wool  breeds  and  the  open- 
ness of  their  fleeces  makes  them  poorly  adapted  for  climates 
where  much  cold  rain  and  snow  falls. 

Lincoln  Sheep.  —  The  Lincoln  sheep  originated  in  the 
county  of  Lincoln,  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  sections 
in  all  England,  where  the  land  is  very  low  and  flat.     The 


144  BREEDS   OF   SHEEP   AND   GOATS 


Fig.  S3.  —  Lincoln  ewe. 

breed  of  Lincoln  sheep  is  noted  for  the  length,  strength, 
quality,  and  luster  of  its  wool. 

They  are  one  of  the  largest  of  the  long  wool  breeds. 
Mature  rams  wxigh  not  less  than  250  pounds,  and  the  ewes 
not  less  than  200  pounds.  The  color  of  the  hair  is  white, 
the  head  is  large  and  hornless,  the  feet  and  legs  are  large 
and  coarse.  The  wool  which  forms  in  ringlets  is  not  found 
on  the  belly  but  covers  the  body,  and  forms  a  tuft  upon  the 
top  of  the  head. 

They  were  imported  to  America  at  an  early  date  but  are 
not  widely  distributed.  Their  mutton  qualities  are  not 
the  best,  the  tendency  being  to  produce  too  much  fat  which 
makes  a  soft,  blubbery  carcass. 

Leicester  Sheep.  —  Leicester  sheep  originated  in  the 
county  of  Leicester,  near  the  central  part  of  England,  and 
were  one  of  the  first  breeds  of  sheep  to  receive  systematic 
improvement  by  selection  and  breeding.     Robert  Bakewell, 


LEICESTER   SHEEP 


145 


a  man  who  did  much  to  improve  cattle,  was  an  improver 
of  the  Leicester  sheep. 

There  are  now  two  types  of  Leicester  sheep  :  the  Bake- 
well,  or  Dishley,  type  and  the  Border  Leicester. 

The  Border  Leicester  are  the  most  favored  in  this  country. 
They  developed  near  the  border  line  between  England  and 
Scotland,  and  are  tall  sheep  that  fatten  readily.  Mature 
rams  weigh  not  less  than  250  pounds  and  ewes  200  pounds. 
The  face  and  legs  are  free  from  wool  and  the  hair  is  white. 
The  fleece,  while  quite  long,  is  of  good  quality  and  Jiangs 
from  the  body  in  ringlets. 

The  Bakewell,  or  Dishley,  type  has  a  tuft  of  wool  on 
the  forehead,  and  the  skin  has  a  bluish  tinge.  Both  types 
of  Leicesters  are  hornless. 

The  wool  produced  by  Leicesters  is  medium  fine  and  of 
fair  length,  but  the  mutton  is  inferior.     They  can  be  crossed 


^^^^Hjj^r^^^l 

^^^  ■^'^B 

4  N^I^^K^b-^'^^sn^^^^^^^^H 

HI 

Fig.  54.  —  Leicester  sheep. 
T.    AND    L.    ANIMAL   HUSB. lO 


146  BREEDS   OF   SHEEP  AND    GOATS 

with  some  of  the  medium  wool  breeds  to  good  advantage. 
They  are  not  good  rustlers,  neither  are  they  good  grazers, 
nor  hardy.  They  were  imported  into  this  country  at  an 
early  date  and  have  received  much  improvement  at  the 
hands  of  American  breeders. 


Fig-  55-  "    Cotswold  ram. 

The  Cotswold.  —  The  Cotswold  is  one  of  the  oldest  breeds 
of  English  sheep.  They  are  a  heavy  breed,  the  mature  rams 
weighing  not  less  than  250  pounds,  and  the  ewes  not  less 
than  200  pounds.  They  are  easily  distinguished  from  the 
other  long  wool  breeds  by  the  locks  of  wool  which  hang 
down  over  their  faces.  The  fleece  is  very  long  and  hangs 
from  the  body  in  ringlets.  They  are  quite  hardy  and  do  well 
on  good  pasture  land.  Their  bodies  are  compact  and  they 
fatten  readily,  but  the  mutton  is  not  of  the  best  quality. 


BLACK   FACE  SHEEP 


147 


These  sheep  were  early  imported  to  America  and  met 
with  considerable  favor,  because  of  their  ruggedness,  pro- 
lificacy, the  amount  of  wool  they  produce,  and  the  size 
of  the  lambs.  Good  Cotswolds  will  shear  from  16  to  18 
pounds  of  wool,  and  the  lambs  will  weigh  over  100  pounds 
at  the  age  of  12  months. 

The  Black  Face  Highland.  —  The  Black  Face  Highland 
sheep,  sometimes  known  as  ''  Black  Face,"  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  where  they  originated,  and  in 
the  mountains  of  Ireland  to  which  countrv  thev  have  been 


Fig.  56.       Black  Face  Highland  ewe. 


imported.  They  are  said  to  be  one  of  the  oldest  breeds 
of  sheep  in  Scotland  and  are  particularly  adapted  to  with- 
stand the  hardships  of  the  regions  in  which  they  live.  They 
are  easily  distinguished  by  their  long  shaggy  fleeces  of  wool, 
which   although   compact  is   generally   coarse.     The   hair 


148 


BREEDS   OF   SHEEP  AND   GOATS 


GOATS  149 

on  the  face  is  black  or  mottled  gray  and  black  and  both 
males  and  females  have  horns. 

These  sheep  are  remarkable  for  their  constitutions ;  even 
the  young  lambs,  as  soon  as  born,  are  able  to  withstand 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather  because  of  the  fleece  which 
covers  them  at  birth.  They  live  in  the  mountainous  sec- 
tions, out  of  doors  all  of  the  time  in  all  sorts  of  weather, 
but  seek  shelter  behind  crags  and  projecting  rocks  when 
bad  storms  prevail.  The  mutton  which  they  produce  is 
said  to  be  of  good  quality.  Although  they  have  much  to 
commend  them,  they  are  not  very  common  in  this  country. 

Kent,  or  Romney  Marsh.  —  This  is  one  of  the  largest 
breeds  of  sheep  and  originated  in  the  lowlands  of  the  county 
of  Kent  in  the  southeastern  part  of  England.  They  are 
remarkable  for  their  abiUty  to  thrive  upon  low,  wet  land. 
Under  these  conditions  they  attain  great  size,  being  sur- 
passed in  this  respect  only  by  the  Lincoln  sheep.  They 
are  long  and  rather  rangy  sheep,  having  white,  broad 
faces.  They  are  low  set  on  short,  thick,  strong  legs  and 
strong  feet.     The  wool  although  long  is  rather  fine. 

GOATS 

In  general  characteristics,  goats  resemble  sheep.  They 
are  not  so  generally  raised  in  America  as  in  foreign  countries, 
but  will  probably  be  more  common  as  the  country  be- 
comes more  thickly  settled  and  the  rougher  sections  more 
generally  used. 

In  this  country,  goats  are  raised  both  for  their  fleeces 
and  for  milk  production.  More  are  raised  for  the  former 
than  for  the  latter  purpose. 

Angora  Goats.  —  While  the  Angora  goat  is  grown  pri- 
marily for  its  fleece,  the  better  the  form  of  the  body  the 


I50       BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  AND  GOATS 

more  desirable  is  the  goat.  The  color  of  the  skin  is  a  bright 
pink  and  the  hair  is  white.  The  face  is  free  from  fleece 
with  the  exception  of  a  tuft  upon  the  forehead.  The  fleece 
forms  in  lustrous  ringlets,  and  may  grow  to  a  length  of  ten  . 
inches.  The  offensive  odor  of  the  common  goat  is  absent 
in  the  Angora  breed;  and  the  odor  in  a  fleece  of  mohair  is 
even  milder  than  that  in  a  fleece  of  common  wool.  This 
fleece  or  mohair  is  useful  for  the  manufacture  of  felting 
material  and  coarse  plushes.  Practically  all  the  cushions 
of  car  seats  are  made  from  mohair,  the  best  of  which  comes 
from  the  younger  goats.  There  is  also  a  considerable 
demand  for  the  meat  of  the  Angora  goat. 

Goats  are  useful  in  the  clearing  of  brush  land.  They 
have  good  digestive  systems  and  will  thrive  upon  young 
twigs  and  shoots  as  well  as  upon  grass.  The  skins  of 
goats  are  used  for  robes  and  rugs.  Leather  made  there- 
from is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gloves,  purses,  shoes, 
and  other  articles. 

Milch  Goats.  —  The  milch  goat,  often  called  ''  the 
poor  man's  cow,"  is  used  in  many  foreign  countries. 
Milch  goats  can  be  fed  and  cared  for  more  cheaply  than 
cows,  and  for  the  feed  given  them,  they  return  liberal 
amounts  of  milk.  The  milk  is  used  for  immediate  con- 
sumption and  in  the  manufacture  of  cheese.  One  who  is 
used  to  drinking  cow's  milk  does  not  relish  the  milk  of 
goats  because  of  its  strong  smell  and  taste. 

There  are  several  breeds  of  milch  goats  which  derive 
their  names  from  the  localities  where  they  originated. 
Some  of  these  breeds  are  Nubian,  Maltese,  New  Mexican, 
Spanish  Maltese,  Toggenburg,  White  Appenzeller,  White 
Saanen,  and  Black-necked  Valaisan.  The  last  four  are 
Swiss  breeds. 


EXERCISES  151 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  breeds  of  sheep  have  black  or  dark  faces?  Dark 
legs  ?     Covered  faces  ?     Bare  faces  ? 

2.  How  do  you  distinguish  a  Hampshire  from  a  Southdown? 

3.  What  are  the  essential  points  of  difference  between  an 
Oxford  and  a  Cotswold? 

4.  Arrange  some  scheme  of  classification  by  which  you 
will  be  able  to  distinguish  the  various  breeds  of  sheep  on  sight. 

5.  What  are  the  principal  breeds  of  sheep  raised  in  your 
locality? 

HOME   PROJECT 

When  lambs  are  less  than  four  weeks  old,  select  and  mark 
two  that  are  apparently  the  best  mutton  types  and  two  of  the 
poorest  for  this  purpose.  Weigh  all  four  animals  every  two 
weeks  and  keep  records  of  their  growth  as  a  test  of  your  judg- 
ment in  selecting  young  stock. 


CHAPTER   IX 
BREEDS    OF    SWINE 

Swine  breeding  is  widely  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  principal  breeds  of  the  lard  tvpe  are 
the  Poland  China,  the  Duroc  Jersey,  the  Berkshire,  and 
the  Chester  White.  The  minor  breeds  of  this  type  include 
the  Small  Yorkshire,  Victoria  Swine,  Suffolk  Swine,  the 
Essex,  and  the  Cheshire.  Berkshires  are  sometimes  classi- 
fied as  belonging  to  the  bacon  breeds,  but  in  the  United 
States  they  are  distinctly  of  the  lard  t>pe.  The  breeds 
of  the  bacon  t>^e  are  the  Large  Yorkshire,  the  Tamworth, 
and  the  Hampshire  or  Thin  Rind  Hog. 

THE   POLAND   CHINA 

History.  —  America  is  responsible  for  the  development 
of  most  of  the  breeds  of  lard  hogs.  This  is  because  of  the 
large  amount  of  Indian  corn  produced  and  fed  to  hogs  in 
this  country,  since  the  feeding  of  Indian  corn  tends  to  pro- 
duce much  fat,  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of  this 
type.  The  Poland  China,  which  originated  in  Ohio  about 
1840,  is  one  of  the  most  popular  breeds.  In  its  early  de- 
velopment, a  great  many  breeds  of  swine  were  called  upon 
to  furnish  blood,  the  commonest  ones  being  the  Berkshire, 
the  Irish  Grazier,  and  the  China.  The  final  product  was 
a  hog  that  matured  early,  fattened  off  at  almost  any  age, 
and  did  well  on  the  one-sided  ration  of  corn  and  water. 

152 


POLAND   CHINA  HOG  153 

Characteristics.  —  This  breed  is  the  accepted  type  for 
the  lard  hog  and  is  characterized  by  a  compact  form ;  a 
well-arched,  wide  back ;  wide,  thick  loins ;  long,  wide,  and 
rather  rounding  rump;  and   deep,   well-developed  hams. 


Fig.  58.  —  Poland  China  hogs. 

The  face  is  short  and  slightly  dished.  The  ear  is  one  of  the 
marks  of  perfection  and  a  point  to  which  breeders  pay  con- 
siderable attention.  This  should  be  of  good  quality,  erect 
at  the  head,  and  should  break  downward  about  one  third  of 
the  distance  from  the  tip.  Six  white  points,  a  white  face, 
white  tip  at  the  end  of  the  tail,  and  four  white  feet,  are  also 
considered  essential.  In  the  show  yard,  the  type  sought  is 
a  blocky,  compact  hog  of  medium  to  large  size  that  carries 
much  flesh  and  gives  evidence  of  being  an  early  maturing 
animal. 

THE  DUROC  JERSEY 

History.  —  This  breed  of  hogs  originated  in  New  Jersey, 
where  they  were  called  "  Jersey  Reds."     They  were  orig- 


154 


BREEDS   OF   SWINE 


Duroc  Jersey  hog. 


inally  large  and  coarse,  with  large  pendulous  ears.  Later, 
they  were  crossed  with  a  strain  of  red  hogs  developed  in 
New  York  state,  that  were  called  Durocs.  When  the 
two  breeds  were  blended  together,  the  new  breed  was  called 
Duroc  Jersey. 

Characteristics.  —  At  the  present  time,  they  are  the  only 
red  breed  of  lard  hogs  in  this  country.  In  type,  they  are 
similar  to  the  Poland  China,  and  it  might  be  said  that 
Duroc  Jerseys  are  red  Poland  Chinas,  although  the  fanciers 
of  both  breeds  would  not  like  the  comparison.  The  color 
preferred  is  cherry  red.  Pigs  that  are  exposed  to  the  sun 
in  the  summer  time  become  sandy  in  color.  Black  spots 
over  the  body  are  objectionable,  and  if  found  in  too  large 
numbers,  they  disqualify  the  animals  in  the  show  ring. 

Duroc  Jersey  hogs  are  good  grazers  and  are  also  well 
adapted  to  following  cattle  in  the  feed  lot.  For  hogs 
of  the  lard  type,  they  are  prolific  and  they  cross  well  with 
other  breeds. 


BERKSHIRE  HOGS 


155 


156  BREEDS   OF   SWINE 


THE   BERKSHIRE 


History.  —  Berkshire  hogs  derive  their  name  from  Berk- 
shire in  England,  where  the  breed  originated.  In  1823 
they  were  introduced  into  the  United  States,  and  were 
brought  into  Canada  in  1838. 

Characteristics.  —  The  Berkshire  can  be  easily  recognized 
by  the  shape  of  the  face  and  snout  and  the  erect  ears. 
The  face  is  decidedly  dished  and  the  snout  is  rather  short, 
giving  the  animal  a  '*  pug-faced  "  appearance.  The  color 
is  black  with  white  feet,  white  face,  and  white  at  the  tip  of 
the  tail.  There  may  be  an  occasional  splash  of  white  on 
the  arm  or  thigh,  but  more  white  than  this  is  considered 
objectionable.  Berkshires  vary  more  or  less  in  type.  To 
a  great  extent  the  type  is  determined  by  the  market  de- 
mands of  the  countries  in  which  they  are  bred  and  by  the 
methods  of  individual  breeders.  The  Berkshire  in  this 
country  is  decidedly  a  lard  hog,  although  in  Canada,  where 
corn  is  scarce,  it  is  more  of  the  bacon  type. 

Berkshires  are  quite  popular  with  swine  fanciers.  They 
are  somewhat  longer  and  straighter  along  the  back  than  the 
Poland  Chinas  and  the  Durocs,  and,  being  more  active  in 
disposition  than  these  two  breeds,  are  good  rustlers  on 
pasture.  Berkshires  of  the  accepted  type  are  quite  pro- 
lific. The  litters  are  large  and  the  females  are  good  mothers. 
In  some  animals  there  is  a  tendency  to  be  somewhat  weak 
around  the  heart  girth  and  in  the  pasterns.  In  selecting 
Berkshires,  one  should  guard  against  these  weaknesses. 

Berkshires  mature  at  an  early  age.  Pigs  one  year  old 
weigh  about  300  pounds.  They  fatten  readily  and  are 
capable  of  making  gains  cheaply.  The  meat  of  Berkshires 
is  of  good  quaHty  and  has  a  large  proportion  of  lean  to  fat. 


CHESTER  WHITE  HOG  157 

THE   CHESTER   WHITE 

History.  —  Chester  White  hogs  originated  in  Chester 
County,  Pennsylvania,  where  large  white  hogs  were  common 
for  many  years  and  from  which  region  the  breed  derived 
its  name.  The  breed  was  improved  by  crossing  with  a 
strain  of  more  refined  Chinese  hogs.  There  are  now  two 
strains  known  as  Todd's  Improved  Chester  Whites  and 
the  Ohio  Improved  Chester  Whites,  both  of  which  have 
been  developed  by  selecting  and  mating  some  of  the  best 
of  the  breed. 

Characteristics.  —  This  breed  is  the  largest  breed  of 
lard  hogs.  In  the  show  ring,  judges  favor  the  compact, 
low  down,  smooth  type,  but  farmers  throughout  the  country 
who  favor  the  Chester  White  for  breeding  purposes,  se- 
lect the  coarser  and  more  rangy  animals,  because  hogs 
of  this  type  raise  larger  litters  of  pigs. 

These  hogs  should  be  pure  white,  no  black  hair  being 
permissible,  although  bluish  spots  are  often  found   on  the 


j^ttk 

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^^    ^1 

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ras^sorr^  laRii^^-frr/S'  ^^^BBR 

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Fig.  61.  —  Chester  White  boar. 


158  BREEDS   OF   SWINE 

skin  ;  these  are  considered  objectionable.  The  body  is  long 
with  a  tendency  to  be  high  on  the  legs,  and  the  bones  and 
hair  are  often  coarse.  The  head  is  quite  long  and  the  ear  is 
long  and  pendulous.  These  coarse  characteristics  do  not 
appeal  to  the  judge  in  the  show  ring. 

MINOR  BREEDS 

The  Small  Yorkshire.  —  The  Small  Yorkshire  is  a  breed 
which  originated  in  England,  where  the  hogs  are  known 
as  the  Small  White.  They  are  the  smallest  breed  in 
America,  and  while  they  mature  quite  early,  they  are  not 
very  useful  for  improving  other  breeds.  Their  bodies  are 
compact,  their  legs  are  short,  the  coat  is  white  and  curly,  and 
the  nose  is  upturned  giving  the  face  a  decidedly  dished  outline. 

Victoria  Swine.  —  These  swine  originated  in  the  United 
States,  but  have  never  attained  much  popularity.  They 
are  white  in  color  and  of  medium  size.  The  hair  is  smooth 
and  straight,  the  face  dished,  and  the  ear,  which  is  of 
medium  size,  is  erect  and  straight.  The  Victoria  is  a  lard 
hog,  and  while  it  may  be  as  useful  as  any  other  breed  for  the 
production  of  meat  and  for  crossing  purposes,  it  has  not 
attained  wide  popularity. 

Suffolk  Swine.  —  This  is  another  English  breed.  Like  the 
Small  Yorkshire,  it  is  white,  small,  and  of  the  lard  type. 
It  has  never  attained  much  popularity  in  this  country. 

The  Essex.  —  The  Essex,  developed  in  the  county  of 
Essex,  England,  is  one  of  the  smallest  breeds  of  lard  hogs. 
It  is  coal  black  in  color,  has  fine  bones  and  hair,  and 
matures  very  early.  While  it  may  be  useful  for  crossing 
with  coarser  breeds  to  produce  quality,  it  is  not  very  popu- 
lar with  the  American  farmer. 


YORKSHIRE   HOG  159 

The  Cheshire.  —  The  Cheshire  is  a  lard  hog  of  medium 
size.  The  color  is  white,  the  face  slightly  dished,  the  ears 
small  and  erect,  and  the  shoulders  and  hams  are  usually 
well  developed.  The  quahty  of  meat  is  quite  as  good  as 
that  from  any  of  the  breeds  of  lard  hogs.  This  breed 
originated  in  the  northern  part  of  New  York  and  is  simply 
a  development  of  the  Yorkshire  hogs  that  were  early  in- 
troduced into  that  state. 

THE  LARGE   YORKSHIRE 

History.  —  The  Large  Yorkshire,  or  the  Large  White 
as  it  is  sometimes  called  in  its  native  country,  England, 
is  the  most  popular  hog  of  Great  Britain.  It  possesses 
the  finest  bacon  quaUties  and  stands  first  among  the 
bacon  breeds  of  swine.  The  superb  bacon  of  Ireland  and 
Denmark  comes  from  these  hogs.  They  are  found  in  large 
numbers  in  Canada,  to  which  country  they  have  been  im- 
ported to  improve  the  bacon  qualities  of  the  Canadian 
hogs      In  the  United  States,  they  are  not  so  numerous  as 


Fig.  62.  —Yorkshire  boar. 


i6o  BREEDS  OF  SW^NE 

some  of  the  lard  type  breeds.  In  this  country,  where 
swine  producing  centers  have  been  extended  beyond  the 
corn  belt,  these  hogs  are  increasing  in  numbers. 

Characteristics.  —  This  is  one  of  the  largest  breeds  of 
hogs.  The  color  is  pure  white,  black  or  blue  spots  in  the 
skin  being  objectionable.  The  hair  is  smooth  and  straight ; 
the  sides  are  long,  straight,  and  free  from  wrinkles,  and  the 
back  is  straight  and  of  medium  width.  The  face  is  dished 
like  that  of  the  Berkshire,  but  is  not  so  short,  conforming 
more  to  the  bacon  t>pe.  Although  of  large  size,  the 
Yorkshires  retain  a  great  deal  of  quality  and  smooth- 
ness. The  shoulders  are  smooth,  the  chest  strong,  and  the 
bones  fine  but  strong.  The  females  are  very  prolific  and 
are  good  mothers. 

THE   TAMWORTH 

History.  —  The  Tamworth,  which  ranks  well  with  the 
Large  Yorkshire  in  size  and  ability  to  produce  bacon  of  the 
best  quaUty,  also  originated  in  England.  While  these  hogs 
have  not  received  so  much  recognition  in  the  bacon  pro- 
ducing centers  of  Europe,  they  are  quite  extensively  raised 
in  Canada,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  in  the  United  States. 

Characteristics.  —  After  once  being  seen,  the  Tamworth 
hogs  are  easily  recognized.  They  are  red  in  color,  a  cherry 
red  being  preferred,  although  some  of  them  become  chest- 
nut, and  in  some  cases  the  color  is  so  dark  as  to  appear  al- 
most black.  The  face  is  very  dififerent  from  that  of  the 
Large  Yorkshire,  being  long  and  narrow,  and  the  nose  is 
exceptionally  long  and  straight.  Its  appearance  has  much 
to  do  in  prejudicing  many  farmers  against  the  breed.  The 
ears  are  long  and  inclined  slightly  forward  with  no  tendency 
to  droop.     When  compared  with  lard  hogs,  the  legs  of  the 


HAMPSHIRE   HOG 


i6t 


Fig.  63.  —  Tamworth  boar. 

Tamworth  appear  abnormally  long  and  the  hams  small. 
The  sides  are  long  with  firm  flesh,  and  the  back,  while  not 
especially  wide,  is  well  covered.  General  smoothness 
throughout  characterizes  the  animal. 

They  are  a  late  maturing  breed,  but  are  very  prolific, 
producing  large  litters  of  healthy,  active  pigs.  The  cross- 
ing of  a  Tamworth  with  one  of  the  lard  breeds  increases 
the  size  of  the  litters  and  improves  the  quality  of  the  pork. 


THE  HAMPSHIRE  OR  THIN  RIND  HOG 

History.  —  The  Hampshire  breed  is  of  English  origin, 
being  first  developed  in  Hampshire,  England.  In  this 
country  these  hogs  are  becoming  quite  popular  in  parts  of 
the  corn  belt,  where  the  tendency  seems  to  be  to  develop 
them  more  and  more  toward  the  lard  type. 

Characteristics.  —  This  breed  is  easily  recognized  by  its 
pecuHar  markings.     It  is  black  with  a  wide  white  band 

T.    AND   L.    ANIMAL   HUSB. II 


l62 


BREEDS  OF   SWINE 


HAMPSHIRE  HOG  163 

around  the  middle  of  the  body,  the  white  belt  including 
both  front  legs.  The  animals  are  usually  classed  as  bacon 
hogs,  but  because  they  are  shorter  than  the  Large  York- 
shire and  the  Tamworth,  they  do  not  furnish  such  long 
sides  of  bacon.  Because  of  their  shortness  and  their  thin- 
ness of  covering  they  are  sometimes  classed  between  the 
bacon  and  the  lard  types.  Besides  their  peculiar  markings 
they  have  other  distinguishing  characteristics.  The  face 
is  straight  and  narrow;  the  ear  is  straight  and  inclines 
forward  slightly.  The  legs  are  longer  than  those  of  the 
lard  type  hog,  and  they  are  deficient  in  the  region  of  the 
ham.  The  back  is  slightly  arched,  but  lacks  the  width 
shown  in  the  lard  hog.  The  flesh  of  the  Hampshire  is  of 
high  quality.  It  is  fine  grained  and  has  considerable  lean. 
Hampshires  are  hardy  and  they  are  good  grazers. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  breeds  of  swine  have  dished  faces ?     Straight  faces? 
Long  noses? 

2.  Name  the  black  breeds  of  swine;  the  white  breeds;  the 
red  breeds. 

3.  Name  the  principal  breeds  of  the  lard  type ;  of  the  bacon 
type. 

4.  Why  are  most  of  the  hogs  of  the  United  States  of  the 
lard  type? 

5.  In  what  respects  does  the  lard  type  of  swine  differ  from 
the  bacon  type  ? 

6.  Which  breeds  of  swine  are  raised  in  your  home  locality  ? 
Which  breed  is  most  popular  ? 

7.  How  do  you  distinguish  between  the  Chester  White  and 
the  small  and  large  Yorkshires  ? 

8.  Make  a  list  of  the  breeds  of  swine  having  erect  ears; 
drooping  ears. 


1 64  BREEDS   OF   SWINE 

9.  Arrange  a  table  of  breed  characteristics  by  which  you  can 
recognize  the  various  breeds  of  swine  at  sight. 

HOME   PROJECT 

From  a  Utter  of  pigs  select  two  that  give  promise  of  being 
the  best  in  the  litter. 

By  frequent  weighing  of  these  animals  and  recording  the 
weights,  check  your  judgment  in  comparison  with  all  the  rest 
of  the  pigs  in  the  Utter. 


CHAPTER   X 
JUDGING   CATTLE 

The  judging  of  cattle  should  be  considered  under  three 
main  heads,  namely,  beef,  dairy,  and  dual  purpose  cattle. 
The  dual  purpose  type  of  cattle  falls  naturally  between 
the  beef  and  the  dairy  types. 

JUDGING   BEEF   CATTLE 

The  profitable  beef  animal  is  one  that  will  return  the 
largest  amount  of  good  meat  in  proportion  to  its  live  weight. 
The  market  will  pay  more  for  some  cuts  than  for  others,  be- 
cause the  meat  consumers  have  preferences  for  particular 
cuts.  Experience  of  the  butcher  has  taught  us  that  a  good 
beef  animal  must  have  a  conformation  upon  which  is 
possible  the  greatest  development  of  high  priced  cuts  of 
meat. 

High  Priced  Cuts.  —  The  highest  priced  meat  is  on  the 
back  in  the  region  of  the  loin,  that  part  of  the  animal  imme- 
diately in  front  of  the  projecting  hip  points.  Next  to  this 
just  back  of  the  shoulders  is  another  cut  of  good  meat.  The 
hindquarters  also  produce  meat  that  sells  for  a  good  price. 

Cheap  Cuts.  —  The  head  is  practically  all  waste  material. 
The  neck  forms  cheap  meat,  and  that  in  the  region  of  the 
belly  or  underline  is  also  sold  for  a  low  price. 

Waste  Material.  —  The  legs  are  waste  material  so  far  as 
meat  is  concerned,  and  a  great  deal  more  waste  materia] 

165 


i66  JUDGING   CATTLE 

comes  from  the  digestive  tract  and  its  contents.  When 
an  animal  is  slaughtered,  the  part  that  is  retained  for  meat 
is  termed  the  ^'  carcass,"  and  the  waste  material  is  termed 
''  offal."  The  butcher  is  interested  in  getting  an  animal 
that  will  produce,  when  slaughtered,  a  high  percentage  of 
carcass  and  a  low  percentage  of  offal.  The  producer  of  the 
beef  animal  is  interested  in  fulfilHng,  in  so  far  as  is  possible, 
the  demands  of  the  butcher. 

What  the  Butcher  Demands.  —  The  butcher  desires  an 
animal  that  has  a  small  head,  small  bones,  short  legs,  and  a 
small  paunch.  The  animal  should  also  have  a  wide  thick 
back,  a  wide  deep  loin,  and  well-developed  hindquarters. 
The  man  who  is  to  feed  the  steer  to  sell  to  the  butcher  looks 
for  an  animal  that  promises  to  fulfill  these  demands. 

What  the  Feeder  Demands.  —  The  form  of  the  animal 
sought  by  the  man  who  feeds  beef  cattle  will  vary  somewhat 
from  the  standard  of  the  butcher.  While  the  feeding  steer 
should  possess  such  desirable  qualities  as  a  straight  back 
and  well-developed  quarters,  it  of  necessity  differs  from  the 
ideal  of  the  butcher  in  that  it  should  have  a  well-developed, 
wide  head  ;  thick  neck  ;  large  heart  girth  ;  a  roomy  paunch, 
and  rather  strong  bone.  The  feeding  steer  must  possess 
these  points,  because  the  feeding  period  is  trying  to  the 
health  of  the  animal,  and  strength  and  constitution  are 
essential.  The  feeding  steer  must  have  a  large  paunch  so 
as  to  have  sufficient  capacity  for  feed. 

What  the  Breeder  Demands.  —  The  breeding  animal 
should  not  only  conform  in  type  to  the  accepted  type  for 
the  butcher,  but  sex  and  breed  characters  should  also  be 
emphasized  in  the  breeding  animal.  In  the  bull  the  head 
and  neck  should  be  strong  and  somewhat  heavier  than  the 
butcher  demands,  and  the  development  of  bone  and  muscle 


BEEF  BREEDS 


167 


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1  .^r^MW:nmM 

BBBRilR'llt^^I^C-: ;  V.'.  ^\.. 

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i 

^n*  ^^ 

^^su 

■Bl  .^kPr4>i;tr/            .fli^^^^HH^    '^^^^H 

^X  !^',  J||HBpj^|HH 

^gg 

Fig.  65.  —  Beef  breeds. 


From  top  to  bottom :  Galloway,  Hereford,  Aberdeen  Angus, 
Shorthorn. 


1 68  JUDGING  CATTLE 

should  be  greater.  These  features  indicate  abiUty  to  trans- 
mit these  attributes  to  his  offspring.  Besides  his  mascuUne 
features,  the  bull  should  have  a  straight  wide  back,  wide 
thick  loin,  good  rump,  and  be  well  let  down  in  the  thigh, 
low  set  and  deep. 

The  cow  should  be  somewhat  refined  about  the  head  and 
neck,  and  show  refinement  also  in  the  bone  and  muscular 
development.  She  should  also  be  wider  in  the  rear  quarters 
than  the  bull.  Besides  all  the  good  characteristics  that 
belong  to  the  cow,  she  should  also  have  the  attributes  of  the 
butcher  animal. 

Besides  the  special  sex  characters  which  distinguish  the 
cow  from  the  bull,  breeding  animals  should  also  conform  in 
type  to  some  particular  breed,  and  as  each  breed  has  special 
characters  of  its  own,  it  remains  for  the  judge  to  learn  the 
attributes  of  each  particular  breed  before  he  can  lay  claim 
to  proficiency  in  judging  breeding  animals. 

The  Form  of  the  Beef  Animal.  —  The  form  of  the  good 
beef  animal  should  be  deep,  broad,  and  low  set,  with  straight 
top  and  underHne.  Viewed  from  the  side,  the  top  line  and 
the  bottom  Une  should  be  parallel ;  the  vertical  line  at  the 
rear  from  the  pin  bones  to  the  hocks  and  that  in  front  from 
the  brisket  upward  should  be  parallel,  so  that  viewed  from 
the  side,  the  steer  should  show  a  rectangular  form.  Viewed 
from  the  rear,  the  back  should  appear  broad  and  flat,  and 
the  sides  of  the  steer  should  be  parallel  so  that  a  cross  sec- 
tion of  the  body  would  appear  as  a  somewhat  flattened 
circle.  The  general  form  should  be  one  that  contributes 
to  the  greatest  compactness. 

Quality.  —  Every  beef  animal,  whether  it  be  already 
fattened  or  a  feeder,  must  have  general  or  inherited  quality 
which  is  indicated  bv  the  fineness  of  bone  and  the  fineness  of 


QUALITY  IX  BEEF  CATTLE 


i6q 


Fig.  66.  —  Grand  champion  steer.     International  Live  Stock  Show. 


skin  and  its  pliability.  A  line,  heavy,  mossy  coat  of  hair 
is  also  desirable,  as  it  indicates  thrift  and  constitution. 
Fineness  of  skin  indicates  fineness  of  meat  fiber.  Pliabil- 
ity of  skin  indicates  that  the  animal  is  in  a  good  thrifty  con- 
dition, that  it  will  do  well  on  a  fattening  ration  and  finish  off 
well.  Fineness  of  bone  shows  that  the  animal  has  fine  fiber 
throughout  the  body,  and  that  the  animal  will  have  less 
waste  when  killed.  While  the  butcher  desires  fine  bone, 
the  feeding  steer  may  be  too  refined  and  not  strong  and 
vigorous  enough  to  feed  out  well. 

Finish.  —  Quality  is  also  used  to  mean  "  finish  "  in  the 
animal.  The  feeder  says  that  finish  is  the  quality  one  must 
feed  into  the  animal.  The  market  offers  more  money  per 
pound  for  the  "  finished  "  animal  than  for  the  thin  animal, 
because  the  finished  animal  will  not  only  dress  a  higher 
percentage  of  salable  carcass,  but  the  meat  itself  is  more 


I70  JUDGING.  CATTLE 

palatable  and  nutritious.  Fat  tissues  contain  less  water 
than  lean  meat  tissues,  so  that  as  the  animal  gets  fat  the  per- 
centage of  water  in  the  carcass  decreases.  The  buyer  can 
afford  to  pay  more  for  the  fat  animal  than  for  the  thin  one, 
because  he  pays  for  less  water ;  and  his  customers  prefer 
to  eat  the  finished  meat  which  has  been  made  tender  by  the 
fattening  process. 

In  looking  for  finish  the  judge  "handles"  the  animal.  If 
the  flesh  is  soft  and  spongy  he  decides  that  the  animal  is  yet 
unfinished  or  has  been  overdone.  The  value  of  a  carcass 
depends  upon  the  ''  marbling  "  of  meat,  which  means  a 
mixture  of  fat  and  lean  somewhat  resembling  streaks  in 
marble.  If  the  animal  is  overdone,  there  will  be  too  high 
a  percentage  of  fat,  which  is  undesirable  and  which  lowers 
the  value  of  the  carcass.  The  animal  should  be  evenly 
covered  and  the  flesh  should  be  firm  because  this  means 
that  the  flesh  will  make  good  meat.  Often  the  animal 
is  inclined  to  be  "patchy,"  that  is,  its  fat  will  be  deposited 
in  patches.  These  patches  are  often  found  around  the  tail 
head,  and  on  cattle  of  poor  type  the  flesh  collects  around  the 
points  of  the  hips. 

Style  and  Temperament.  —  In  style  the  steer  should 
be  active  and  upstanding,  and  not  sluggish  in  temperament. 
The  laying  on  of  fat  is  dependent  upon  the  activity  of  the 
animal,  and  if  he  appears  sluggish  or  inactive  it  may  indicate 
poor  physical  condition  and  inability  to  utilize  the  ration  to 
the  best  advantage. 

A  great  deal  is  said  concerning  the  temperament  of  the 
beef  animal.  While  the  animal  should  be  quiet,  this  does 
not  mean  that  he  should  be  sluggish.  If  too  nervously 
inclined,  the  animal  may  move  about  too  much,  yet  some  of 
the  best  feeders  are  most  nervous  and  finish  the  cheapest 


PARTS   OF  THE  BODY  171 

and  best  if  quietly  handled.  The  beef  steer  must  have  what 
is  known  as  a  phlegmatic  temperament.  This  means  that  he 
must  be  docile  enough  so  that  he  will  consume  great  quanti- 
ties of  food  and  place  the  surplus  in  the  form  of  fat  upon  his 
body.  This  in  turn  depends  upon  type  and  quality.  In 
the  case  of  the  beef  animal  as  well  as  the  dairy  animal, 
temperament  is  secondary  to  type  and  quality. 

Head  and  Neck.  —  The  head  and  neck  of  the  beef  animal 
are  pecuHar  to  the  type,  and  experienced  judges  can  almost 
determine  the  value  of  the  animal  by  looking  at  its  head  and 
neck.  The  muzzle  should  be  of  good  size,  indicating  strength  ; 
a  large  mouth  indicates  capacity,  thin  lips  indicate  quality, 
and  large  nostrils  indicate  breathing  capacity  and  constitu- 
tion. The  eyes  should  be  clear,  indicating  health,  and  placid, 
indicating  a  quiet  disposition.  A  short  face  indicates  that 
the  body  of  the  animal  is  short  and  compact.  Ears  of  mod- 
erate size  indicate  that  the  animal  is  free  from  coarseness, 
and  fine  texture  of  the  ear  shows  that  the  quality  of  the 
animal  is  good.  A  short  neck  indicates  compactness  and 
lessens  the  amount  of  cheap  meat.  Thickness  of  the  neck, 
while  it  increases  the  weight,  is  essential  because  it  is  always 
associated  with  the  desired  thickness  of  body. 

Forequarters :  Shoulders.  —  In  the  region  of  the  fore- 
quarters,  one  looks  for  smoothness  and  compactness.  The 
neck  should  blend  gently  into  the  body  of  the  animal.  The 
region  where  the  shoulder  and  neck  meet  is  known  as  the 
"  shoulder  vein,"  and  fullness  in  this  region  means  that  the 
neck  and  shoulder  blend  well.  The  shoulder  should  be  well 
covered,  smooth,  and  compact  on  top.  Width  at  the  top  of 
the  shoulders  is  desirable,  but  it  often  happens  that  the 
shoulders  are  too  wide.  This  gives  the  animal  an  appear- 
ance of  coarseness,  and  the  shoulders  are  likely  to  be  too 


172 


JUDGING   CATTLE 


loosely  knit  at  the  top.     Width  in  the  region  of  the  breast 
is  desirable  also  in  the  beef  animal. 

The  brisket  is  the  name  applied  to  the  point  of  the  breast 
bone  together  with  the  flesh  covering  this  region.     While  the 


Fig.  67.  —  Parts  of  a  heavy  steer. 

brisket  is  one  of  the  cheaper  parts  of  the  animal,  fullness 
and  prominence  in  this  region  is  desired,  because  if  the  ani- 
mal is  deficient  in  one  part  it  is  likely  to  be  deficient  in  other 
parts.  Dewlap  is  the  term  applied  to  the  loose  skin  that 
is  found  on  the  lower  side  of  the  neck  extending  from  the 
lower  jaw  to  the  brisket.  The  amount  of  dewlap  varies 
with  the  breed.  A  light  dewlap  is  desired.  The  front  legs 
should  be  short  and  straight  and  set  wide  apart.  They 
should  be  fine  without  appearance  of  weakness.  Coarse 
bones  are  undesirable. 


PARTS   OF   THE   BODY 


173 


The  Body :  Chest.  —  In  the  region  of  the  chest  the  animal 
should  be  full,  deep,  and  wide,  providing  space  for  the  heart 
and  lungs  located  therein.  The  chest  is  one  of  the  most 
important  points  in  the  make-up  of  the  animal.     An  animal 

COUPLING 


:2^ 

Fig.  68.  —  Side  view  of  a  heavy  steer. 

with  a  small  chest  is  unable  to  thrive  so  well  through  the 
feeding  period. 

The  girth  is  the  distance  around  the  body  measured  just 
back  of  the  shoulders.  The  larger  the  girth  the  better  the 
animal. 

The  fore  flank  is  located  immediately  back  of  the  fore 
legs.  In  the  well-finished  steer,  the  elbow  joint  is  almost 
concealed. 

The  Crops.  —  The  crops  ^  is  the  region  immediately  back 
of  the  top  of  the  shoulders.  This  region  should  be  well 
filled  up  so  that  there  is  no  depression. 

^  The  Americans  and  the  British  do  not  agree  as  to  the  location  of  the 
crops.  The  Scotch  and  English  schools  state  that  the  crops  refers  to  the  out- 
cropping of  the  tops  of  the  shoulders  of  the  animal.  What  the  Americans 
call  crops  is  called  chine  by  the  British.  The  usage  as  accepted  by  the 
American  schools  has  been  accepted  and  employed  here. 


174  JUDGING   CATTLE 

Ribs.  —  The  ribs  spring  from  the  backbone  and  in  the 
beef  animal  are  well  arched  and  extend  well  out  from  it, 
making  a  round  and  deep  barrel.  The  ribs  should  be  close 
together  and  well  covered  with  flesh.  Since  upon  the 
arching  of  the  ribs  depends  the  amount  of  meat  the  back  will 
carry,  the  spring  of  the  ribs  is  very  important.  The  flat 
ribbed  animal  is  never  a  good  feeder. 

Back.  —  The  back  is  the  most  important  part  to  be  con- 
sidered in  judging  the  steer.  Here  are  located  the  best  cuts 
of  meat,  and  here  the  judge  gets  his  first  impressions  of  the 
value  of  the  animal.  Breadth  and  straightness  of  back 
should  be  carefully  considered.  The  broader  the  back  the 
more  meat  the  animal  will  be  able  to  carry.  Straightness  of 
back  indicates  strength,  and  the  covering  of  flesh  upon  the 
back  denotes  the  finish  of  the  animal. 

Loin.  —  The  loin  is  the  region  that  lies  between  the  last 
ribs  and  the  points  of  the  hips.  This  is  the  region  of  the 
highest  priced  cuts  of  meat,  and  great  width  and  thickness 
of  loin  is  desirable.  The  loin  should  be  short  and  com- 
pact. An  animal  long  in  the  coupling  is  never  a  good 
feeder  and  seldom  produces  a  large  proportion  of  high- 
priced  cuts. 

Flank.  —  The  flank  lies  in  front  of  the  hind  legs.  This 
should  be  well  let  down  so  that  the  underline  will  be  straight. 
If  the  animal  is  high  in  this  region  he  is  not  only  a  poor 
feeder  but  the  rear  quarters  will  not  be  large  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  goodly  amount  of  round  steak.  Thickness  of  flank 
indicates  finish.  This  region  is  one  of  the  last  places  to 
fatten,  and  if  the  steer  is  well  filled  in  this  part  he  is  carrying 
considerable  flesh. 

Hindquarters.  — The  hips  of  the  steer  should  be  smoothly 
covered.     Projecting  hips  belong  to  the  dairy  cow  and  are 


THE   SCORE   CARD  175 

undesirable  in  the  meat  producing  animal.  Steers  with 
projecting  hips  are  hard  to  fatten  and  do  not  fmish  smoothly. 

The  rump  Kes  back  of  the  hips.  From  this  region  some 
very  good  cuts  of  meat  are  obtained.  Length  and  width 
here  are  desirable.  A  sloping  rump  is  objectionable,  because 
it  detracts  from  the  form  of  the  animal.  If  too  high  at  the 
tail  head,  the  rump  is  likely  to  be  narrow  and  the  tail  head 
patchy  and  prominent. 

The  sharp  bones  at  either  side  of  the  tail  head  are  called 
pin  bones.  These  should  be  far  apart  to  conform  to  the 
general  width  of  the  animal,  and  should  be  smoothly  covered 
with  flesh. 

The  thighs  consist  of  the  thigh  bones  and  the  meat  on  the 
outside  of  them.  In  this  region,  the  steer  should  be  plump, 
wide,  and  deep.  Even  in  the  thin  animal,  one  should  look 
for  well-developed  muscles. 

The  twist  is  the  name  applied  to  the  muscles  on  the  inside 
of  the  thigh  bones.  In  this  region  look  for  plumpness  and 
depth.  The  thighs  and  twist  taken  together  constitute  the 
quarters  of  the  animal  from  which  the  round  steaks  are  cut. 
Fullness  in  the  quarters  is  very  desirable. 

USE  OF  THE   SCORE   CARD 

The  score  card  is  always  made  use  of  by  the  student  of 
live  stock  judging,  but  it  is  seldom  used  by  the  expert  in  the 
show  ring.  The  total  score  for  any  animal  is  100.  While 
animals  may  approach  perfection,  none  attain  it,  so  that  a 
score  of  100  is  impossible.  In  scoring  live  stock  no  cuts 
should  be  less  than  one  fourth  of  one  point  for  imperfections. 

When  the  points  and  their  relative  value  have  once  been 
fixed  in  mind  the  score  card  may  be  dispensed  with  and  the 
animals  judged  by  direct  comparison. 


176  JUDGING   CATTLE 

BEEF    CATTLE 
SCORE    CARD   FOR  JUDGING   BEEF   CATTLE 


SCALE  OF  POINTS 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  25  POINTS 

Weight,    estimated   in   lbs 

Weight 

Form,  straight  top  line  and  underline;  deep, 
broad,  low  set •.••■; 

Quality,  firm  handling  ;  hair  fine  ;  skin  pliable  ; 
fine  bone  :   evenly  covered  with  firm  flesh .  .  .  . 

Style,  active,  upstanding 

Temperament,  quiet,  docile 

HEAD  AND  NECK  —  8  POINTS 

Muzzle,  good  size,  mouth  large ;  lips  thin,  nos- 
trils large 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 

Face,  short,  quiet  expression 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 

Neck,  thick,  short,  throat  clean 

FORE  QUARTERS  —  14  POINTS 

Shoulder  Vein,   full 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top, 
snug _ 

Breast,   wide ;    brisket  prominent 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 

Legs,   straight,   short;    arm  full;    shank  fine, 

smooth 

BODY  —  28  POINTS 

Chest,  full,  deep,  wide ;  girth,  large  ;  fore-flank 
full 

Crops,  full,  even  with  shoulders 

Ribs,  deep,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 

Back,  broad,  straight,  evenly  fleshed 

Loin,  thick,  broad ._ 

Flank,  full,  even  with  underline 

HINDQUARTERS— 25  POINTS 

Hips,  smoothly  covered  ;  distance  apart  in  pro- 
portion with  other  parts 

Rump,  long,  even,  wide ;  tail  head  smooth,  not 
patchy 

Pin  Bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart 

Thighs,   full,  wide,  deep 

Twist,  deep,  plump 

Legs,  straight,  short;   shank  fine,  smooth 


Points  Deficient 


Total. 


Student's 
Score 

Corrected 

DAIRY   CATTLE  177 

JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 

It  is  harder  to  become  a  good  judge  of  dairy  cattle  than  of 
beef  cattle.  While  one  may  judge  quite  accurately  the 
percentage  of  carcass  a  steer  will  return,  and  the  quaUty 
of  the  same  by  the  general  quahty  and  condition  of  the 
animal,  he  can  only  guess  as  to  how  much  milk  a  cow  will 
give  and  what  will  be  the  percentage  of  butter  fat  in  her 
milk.  The  scales  and  the  Babcock  test  are  the  two  best 
means  of  judging  dairy  cows,  but  these  appliances  are  not 
used  in  the  show  ring,  where  animals  are  judged  according 
to  type.  Carefully  selecting  and  retaining  for  breeding 
purposes  cows  with  good  records  for  a  great  number  of 
years  has  developed  animals  of  a  certain  type  that  are  best 
suited  for  the  production  of  milk  and  milk  solids.  The  type 
of  these  animals  is  the  ''  dairy  type,"  and  the  man  who  is 
most  proficient  in  recognizing  the  points  making  up  the 
dairy  type  is  the  man  who  is  the  good  judge  of  dairy  cattle. 
However,  a  great  deal  of  a  cow's  worth  depends  upon  her 
individuality,  and  there  are  no  points  on  the  surface  of  the 
animal  that  can  be  made  to  indicate  the  animal's  individ- 
uality. This  is  why  the  best  cow  in  the  show  ring  is  often 
second  best  in  yield  of  milk. 

What  Determines  Dairy  Type.  —  Milk  production  is  a 
function  of  the  cow  performed  by  certain  organs.  The 
four  principal  systems  upon  which  milk  production  de- 
pends are :  the  digestive  system,  the  circulatory  system, 
the  nervous  system,  and  the  secreting  system.  It  is  im- 
portant that  the  organs  of  these  systems  be  well  de- 
veloped. Those  characters  that  show  fattening  tendencies 
should  be  repressed  so  far  as  possible,  because  it  is  im- 
possible to  find  extreme  development  of  both  milk  and  beef 

T.    AND    L.    ANIMAL   HUSB. 12 


178 


JUDGING   CATTLE 


SHAPE   OF   DAIRY   COW 


179 


qualities  in  the  same  animal.  Except  in  the  case  of  a  few 
of  the  points,  such  as  constitution  and  capacity  for  feed, 
that  should  be  well  developed  in  all  animals,  the  form  of 
the  dairy  animal  is  strongly  in  contrast 
with  that  of  the  beef  animal. 

Form  of  the  Dairy  Cow.  —  In  general 
form  the  dairy  cow  should  present  wedge 
shapes  when  viewed  from  three  differ- 
ent positions,  the  front,  the  side,  and 
the  top.  Viewed  from  the  front  the 
point  of  the  wedge  appears  at  the  top 
of  the  shoulders,  and  the  butt  of  the 
wedge  appears  at  the  points  of  the 
shoulders.  This  wedge  indicates  a  cow 
free  from  fatty  tendencies  on  the  back 
and  wide  through  the  region  of  the 
chest.  Viewed  from  the  top,  one  sees 
the  point  of  the  wedge  at  the  shoulders 
and  the  butt  at  the  points  of  the 
hips.  Freedom  from  fleshiness  over 
the  shoulders  and  great  capacity  in  the 
region  of  the  hips  and  pelvis  are  here 
shown.  From  a  side  view  of  the  cow 
one  should  note  the  great  depth  from 
the  top  of  the  hips  to  the  bottom  of  the 
udder,  which  distance  constitutes  the 
butt  of  the  wedge.  One  should  also 
note  the  gradual  decrease  in  depth  as  he 
carries  his  eye  forward  to  the  shoulder. 
This  means  that  the  barrel  of  the  cow 
is  large,  givinsf  capacity  for  feed,  and     Fig.  71- —wedge  shaped 

,        .  ,,     :^  J  shoulder  and  back  of  a 

that  the  udder  is  well  developed.  dairy  cow. 


Fig.  70.  — Wedge  shaped 
back  of  a  dairy  cow. 


i8o 


JUDGING   CATTLE 


Quality.  —  Quality  is  indicated  by  clean,  fine  bones,  free 
from  roughness  and  coarseness  ;  fine,  soft  hair ;  and  loose, 
mellow  skin  of  medium  thickness  with  an  abundance  of 
yellow  secretion.  Coarseness  of  any  kind  means  plain 
breeding  or  lack  of  breeding  for  any  particular  purpose. 
Coarse,  rough  cows  are  poor  mothers,  and  poor  mothers 
make  poor  dairy  cows.     The  yellow  secretion  means  that  the 

secreting  glands  of 
the  body  are  in  good, 
healthy,  active  con- 
dition. Well-fed  and 
cared-for  cows  show 
more  secretion  than 
those  that  are  poorly 
kept.  The  amount 
of  secretion  varies 
with  the  breed  of  the 
animal,  and  it  may  also  vary  with  different  individuals 
within  the  breed.  The  amount  of  secretion  and  the  color 
of  it  is  said  by  some  to  be  an  index  to  the  quality  of  the  fat 
content  of  the  milk. 

Temperament.  —  The  term  temperament  includes,  in 
our  generally  accepted  meaning  of  the  word,  disposition, 
but  it  means  more  than  disposition.  Dairy  temperament 
might  be  defined  as  the  inherited  attributes  of  the  dairy 
animal  which  make  it  possible  for  her  to  change  large  quan- 
tities of  food  into  milk  and  milk  solids,  and  to  transmit  those 
qualities  to  her  offspring.  The  temperament  of  the  dairy 
animal  is  spoken  of  as  ''  nervous."  This  does  not  mean 
that  the  dairy  animal  should  be  erratic,  according  to  our 
often  accepted  meaning  of  the  term  ''  nervous."  The  term 
is  used  here  to  mean  just  what  the  derivation  of  the  word 


Fig.  72.  -    Wedge  shaped  side  of  a  dairy  cow. 


DAIRY  TYPE 


i«i 


explains,  viz.,  full  of  nerves,  or  having  nervous  force,  or  a 
strong  nervous  system.  The  points  which  indicate  dairy 
temperament  are  a  refined  head  and  neck  and  a  strong 
prominent  backbone,  providing  plenty  of  room  for  good 
nerve  development.  One  might  properly  include  all  the 
points  that  constitute  dairy  type  as  points  that  indicate 
dairy  temperament. 

Head  and  Neck.  —  Marked  refinement  should  be  por- 
trayed in  every  feature  of  the  head  and  neck.  The  face 
should  be  long,  indicating  that  the  body  is  long.  The 
expression  should  be  quiet  and  the  eye  clear.  A  large 
muzzle,  indicating  feeding  capacity,  and  large  nostrils, 
indicating  lung  capacity,  are  desirable.  The  eyes  should 
be  large  and  clear,  indicating  vigor  and  health.  Breadth 
of  forehead  indicates  brain  and  nerve  capacity ;  and  ears 
of  fine  quahty  with  an  abundance  of  secretion  indicate 
quahty.  Refinement  of  neck  is  an  indication  of  inherited 
maternal  instinct. 

Forequarters.  —  The  shoulders  should  be  wide  at  the 
points  to  give  plenty  of  chest  room,  and  thin  at  the  top, 
indicating  refinement  and  freedom  from  fleshiness.  Too 
great  width  should  be  avoided.  The  breast  should  be  full 
and  capacious,  and  the  legs  should  be  short,  fine,  and  free 
from  any  indication  of  coarseness. 

Body.  —  An  examination  of  the  body  of  the  animal  should 
show  a  deep  chest  of  moderate  width,  which  indicates  con- 
stitution. Constitutional  vigor  and  endurance  are  the 
two  most  essential  points  of  the  milk-producing  cow.  The 
ribs  should  spring  gently  from  the  backbone  and  extend 
well  down,  with  the  spaces  between  them  roomy,  making 
the  barrel  as  large  as  possible  to  give  great  capacity.  The 
backbone  should  be  prominent,  indicating  room  for  a  strong 


I«2 


JUDGING   CATTLE 


spinal  cord,  the  main  line  of  the  nervous  system  from  the 
brain  to  different  extremities  of  the  body.  The  backbone 
should  be  open-jointed,  as  would  be  expected  if  the  ribs  were 
well  spaced.  The  loin  should  also  be  large  and  roomy,  and 
all  these  parts  should  be  free  from  fattening  tendencies. 

Hindquarters.  —  Liberal  development  of  the  hindquar- 
ters of  the  cow  is  essential.     The  hip  points  should  be  far 

apart  and  prominent, 
the  rump  should 

A^^  '^'IHl^li!^^^^  1     ^^^   ^^ng'    wide   and 

1^^^  ^^^^^^^^Hm  the 

fl^^B  ^BH^^^^^b    ■     bones  far  apart.     A 

W'^K  ""^^^^^    V     short  drooping  rump 

^    '  "^  "^      ^     is   a   serious   objec- 

__^ tion  in  the  dairy  cow. 

^        /    ^j^m^^-  -  'V^y^     The  setting   and 
ii      *^  *        '         length    of    the    tail 

are  important.    The 

tail    should    be    set 

high,  and  it  should 

reach  at  least  to  the 

hocks.    It  should  be 

thin,  and  is  one  of  the  indications  of  quality.     The  thighs 

should  be  thin  and  curving  on  the  inside  to  give  plenty 

of  room  for  udder  development. 

The  escutcheon  is  that  part  of  the  cow's  udder  and  the 
space  above  it  marked  by  the  hair  growing  upward  or  out- 
ward instead  of  downward.  It  is  sometimes  called  the 
"  milk  mirror,"  and  was  believed  at  one  time  to  be  an 
index  to  the  milking  qualities  of  the  animal.  The  ideal 
escutcheon  should  be  wide  and  high.  There  are  good 
milkers  with  ideal   escutcheons   and   good  milkers  whose 


Fig.  73.  —  Large  capacity  to  produce  milk. 


PARTS   OF  THE   DAIRY   COW  183 

escutcheons  are  far  from  ideal.  There  are  also  poor  milk- 
ers that  bear  good  escutcheons,  so  its  importance  is  ques- 
tioned. It  is  well  to  make  a  careful  examination,  and 
to  become  familiar  with  escutcheons,  since  considerable 
emphasis  is  placed  upon  them  by  many  breed  associations. 

The  udder  is  the  most  important  part  of  the  dairy  cow, 
and  should  be  given  careful  examination.  It  is  here  that  the 
secretion  of  milk  takes  place.  If  an  animal  has  a  poorly 
shaped  udder,  or  one  that  is  fleshy,  diseased,  or  defective 
in  any  one  of  its  quarters,  her  chances  of  being  a  good  milk 
cow  are  poor.  The  udder  should  be  broad,  and  the  quarters 
symmetrical  and  evenly  placed.  A  long  pendulous  udder 
or  a  fleshy  one  is  very  undesirable.  One  that  is  carried  well 
forward  and  well  held  up  between  the  thighs  is  ideal  and 
most  desirable.  Oftentimes  the  cow  with  the  large  udder 
is  not  the  cow  that  returns  the  most  milk.  The  cow  with 
the  small  udder  of  good  quality  is  better  equipped  than  the 
cow  with  the  large  fleshy  udder.  On  the  other  hand  heavy- 
producing  cows  have  large,  well-developed  udders.  Milk  is 
secreted  by  the  glands  of  the  udder  largely  at  milking  time. 
The  udder  is  not  a  huge  cistern  to  carry  milk  that  is  being 
constantly  secreted,  as  is  often  supposed,  but  is  the  gland 
which  secretes  the  fluid. 

The  teats  of  the  cow  are  very  important.  Their  size  and 
placing  have  much  to  do  with  the  ease  of  milking.  Teats 
should  be  evenly  placed  at  the  four  quarters  of  the  udder, 
and  should  hang  plumb.  Teats  that  are  too  large  are  un- 
gainly, and  small  teats  are  hard  to  milk.  The  milk  should 
be  easily  drawn  from  the  teats. 

The  Mammary  or  Milk  Veins  are  the  large  blood  vessels 
on  the  cow's  belly  that  extend  from  the  udder  forward  and 
enter  the  body  cavity  near  the  fore  legs.     It  should  be 


1 84 


JUDGING   CATTLE 


remembered  that  these  vessels  are  carrying  the  blood  away 
from  the  udder  and  not  toward  it.  They  are  an  index  to 
the  amount  of  blood  that  has  been  taken  to  the  udder,  and 
for  this  reason  they  are  worthy  of  careful  consideration  on 
the  part  of  the  judge.  All  good  record  cows  have  had  large, 
tortuous,  branching  milk  veins.  Oftentimes  there  are  poor 
producing  cows  that  are  well  equipped  with  good  veins,  but 
they  are   the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.     The  milk 

veins  enter  the  body 
cavity  through  holes 
that  are  called  ''milk 
wells.''  These  should 
be  large,  allowing 
room  for  large  veins. 
There  is  always  one 
on  each  side,  but  if 
there  are  two  or  even 
three  on  a  side  it  is 
better. 

The    hind    legs 

should    be   short, 

straight,  and  strong, 

as     opposed     to 

crooked,  weak  legs.     Placed  well  apart  they  allow  room  for 

a  wide  udder  and  show  capacity  in  the  cow. 

Importance  of  Dairy  Score  Cards.  —  While  there  are  a 
great  many  things  about  the  dairy  cow  that  do  not  appear 
on  the  surface,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  cows  of  dairy 
type  that  conform  to  the  dairy  score  card  are  better  pro- 
ducing cows  than  those  that  are  opposite  in  type.  Milk 
records  are,  of  course,  very  important,  and  a  great  deal  of 
consideration   should   be  given   them,   but  it   is  likewise 


Fig.  74.  —  Prominent  milk  veins. 


SCORE   CARD 


i8s 


SCORE  CARD  FOR  JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 


GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  A  dairy  cow  should  weigh  not  less  than  800  pounds, 
have  large  capacity  for  feed,  a  dairy  temperament,  well-developed  milk  organs,  fine 
quality  and  perfect  health,  and  be  capable  of  a  large  production  of  milk  and  butter  fat. 


Scale  of  Points 

Perfect 
Score 

Points  Deficient 

Student's 
Score 

Corrected 

INDICATION    OF    CAPACITY   FOR   FEED — 
25   POINTS 
Face,  broad  between  the  eyes  and  long ;   muzzle  clean 
cut;   mouth   large;  lips   strong;  lower  jaws   lean 
and  sinewy 

5 

10 

5 
5 

3 

4 

2 

4 
3 
3 

4 

I 
I 

3 
3 

15 
4 

2 
3 
5 

7 

7 

I 

Body,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  front,  side,  and 
top;  ribs,  long,  far  apart  and  well  sprung;   breast 
full  and  wide  ;   flanks,  deep  and  full 

Back,  straight;  crops,    broad  and  open;  loin  broad 
and  roomy 

Hips  and  thurls,  wide  apart  and  high 

INDICATION    OF   DAIRY   TEMPERAMENT  — 
25   POINTS 
Head,  clean  cut  and  fine  in  contour ;  eyes,  promi- 
nent, full,  and  bright 

Neck,  thin,  long,  neatly  joined  to  head  and  shoulders 
and  free  from  throatiness  and  dewlap 

Brisket,  lean  and  light 

Shoulders,   lean,   sloping,   nicely   laid   up   to   body; 
points  prominent ;   withers  sharp 

Back,  strong,  prominent  to  tail  head  and  open  jointed 

Hips,  prominent,  sharp  and  level  with  back 

Thighs,  thin  and  curving  on  the  inside 

Tail,  fine  and  tapering 

Legs  straight ;  shank  fine 

INDICATION      OF      WELL-DEVELOPED      MILK 
ORGANS  — 25   POINTS 
Rump,  long,  wide,  and  level;  pelvis  roomy 



Thighs,  wide  apart ;  twist,  high  and  open 

Udder,  large,   pliable,   extending  well   forward   and 
high    up    behind;     quarters,    full,    symmetrical, 
evenly  joined  and  well  held   up  to  body 

Teats,  plumb,  good  size,  symmetrical  and  well  placed 

INDICATIONS      OF      STRONG       CIRCULATORY 
SYSTEM,     HEALTH,     VIGOR,     AND     MILK 
FLOW  — 25   POINTS 

Chest   roomy                                         . . 

Skin,    pliable;  hair,    fine    and    straight;  secretions 

Veins,    prominent    on    face    and    udder;    mammary 
veins,  large,  crooked,  and  branching;   milk  wells 

Total                               

100 

1 86  JUDGING  CATTLE 

necessary  to  consider  the  type.  It  is  imperative  in  dairy 
circles  to  maintain  uniform  standards,  and  there  is  no 
question  but  that  one  gets  very  close  to  the  relative  value 
of  cows  in  the  order  of  their  possible  production  when  using 
type  as  a  standard. 

EXERCISES 

1.  By  the  use  of  the  score  card  system  select  the  best  beef 
animal  on  the  home  farm. 

2.  By  using  the  points  on  the  score  card  select  the  best  cow 
in  the  home  herd. 

3.  Test  your  judgment  by  weighing  the  milk  of  the  three 
best  cows. 

4.  Further  check  your  judgment  by  testing  the  milk  of  all 
these  animals  and  calculating  butter  fat  production. 

HOME   PROJECT 

Keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  milk  production  of  all  the 
dairy  cows  in  the  home  herd  for  one  month  and  test  the  milk 
of  each  in  order  to  determine  by  actual  test  the  best  cows. 


CHAPTER  XI 
JUDGING   SWINE   AND    SHEEP 

Swine  are  produced  for  meat  alone ;  and  the  ideal  animal 
is  the  one  that  will  produce  the  maximum  percentage  of 
good  meat.  The  lard  hog  is  a  low-down,  thick,  compact 
animal  that  has  been  developed  on  fattening'  foods ;  while 
the  bacon  hog  has  been  developed  on  foods  that  tend  to 
produce  more  bone  than  muscle.  The  fat  hog  is  a  product 
of  the  corn  belt,  where  corn  is  the  cheapest  ration  grown  and 
the  one  most  commonly  fed.  The  bacon  hog  is  a  product  of 
regions  outside  the  corn  belt.  The  market  favors  the  corn- 
fed  hog  because  it  dresses  a  higher  percentage  of  carcass, 
averaging  from  80  per  cent  to  85  per  cent  of  the  live  weight. 
The  bacon  hog  dresses  about  10  per  cent  less  than  the  lard 
hog. 

The  average  consumer  prefers  meat  from  the  bacon  hog, 
notwithstanding  its  higher  cost,  because  it  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  lean  meat. 

JUDGING  LARD  HOGS 

In  form  the  lard  hog  is  deep,  broad,  low,  long,  symmetrical, 
and  compact,  standing  squarely  on  its  legs.  The  ideal  lard 
hog  gives  one  the  impression  of  great  weight  in  the  smallest 
possible  space,  and  is  the  type  sought  by  the  butcher.  In 
this  respect  it  closely  resembles  the  beef  steer  and  the 
mutton  sheep. 

X87 


1 88  JUDGING  SWINE  AND   SHEEP 

Quality.  — Quality  is  indicated  by  clean  bones,  free  from 
coarseness  ;  fine,  smooth  hair,  free  from  swirls  ;  and  soft  skin, 
indicating  fineness  of  flesh.  The  head  and  ears  should  be 
refined,  indicating  a  low  percentage  of  waste.  If  the  body 
is  evenly  covered  with  firm  flesh,  the  judge  will  know  that 
the  fat  and  lean  are  well  mixed  in  the  carcass.  Flabbiness, 
which  is  undesirable,  indicates  too  large  a  proportion  of 
fat  meat  in  the  carcass. 

Disposition.  —  In  disposition,  the  hog  should  be  quiet, 
because  the  quiet  hog  will  consume  large  rations.  He  down, 
and  thus  fatten  more  readily  than  the  animal  that  takes  a 
great  deal  of  exercise. 

Head  and  Neck.  —  In  the  examination  of  the  head  and 
neck,  one  should  look  for  a  snout  of  medium  length,  not 
too  coarse.  A  long  snout  indicates  a  long  frame  and  a  rever- 
sion to  wild  ancestry.  The  face  should  be  short,  with  full, 
plump  cheeks.  The  short  face  indicates  a  compact  body, 
and  the  full  cheeks,  fleshing  tendencies  on  the  part  of  the 
animal.  Breadth  of  forehead  indicates  width  of  body  and 
liberal  capacity.  The  eyes  of  hogs  are  small,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  extremely  fat  hog  they  are  almost  entirely  concealed, 
but  they  should  be  as  large  as  possible  and  wide  apart.  The 
ear  is  a  good  index  to  quality,  the  large  coarse  ear  indicating 
coarse  meat.  The  ear  of  medium  size  and  fine  texture  is 
desirable  as  it  indicates  a  carcass  of  good  quality.  If  the 
ear  hangs  too  limply,  it  indicates  sluggishness,  which  is 
undesirable.  The  jowl,  which  is  the  flesh  beneath  the  lower 
jaw,  should  be  neat  and  well  tucked  up,  and  at  the  same 
time  it  should  be  full  and  wide.  The  hog's  neck  should  be 
short  and  thick,  blending  smoothly  into  the  shoulders  and 
connecting  nicely  with  the  head.  A  long,  thin  neck  on  a 
lard  hog  is  very  undesirable. 


PARTS  OF  THE  HOG  189 

Shoulder.  —  From  the  shoulder,  some  very  good  meat 
is  obtained.  This  part  of  the  carcass  is  usually  trimmed, 
packed,  and  cured  separately.  The  so-called  "  picnic  hams," 
which  are  in  great  demand,  come  from  the  shoulder.  This 
should  be  deep,  broad,  and  well  covered  with  flesh.  On 
top,  the  shoulders  should  be  compact  and  well  knit,  leaving 
no  depressions,  which  may  occur  if  they  are  wide  and  too 
far  apart.  If  the  shoulders  on  the  male  hog  are  too  coarse, 
they  may  develop  ''  shields,"  which  are  great  thickenings 
of  the  skin  over  the  shoulders  and  are  very  objectionable. 

Breast  and  Chest.  —  The  breast  should  be  prominent, 
wide,  and  well  let  down.  If  the  animal  is  tucked  up  or 
deficient  in  the  breast,  he  will  be  deficient  in  the  region  of 
the  chest  and  will  lack  constitutional  strength. 

The  chest  of  the  hog  is  one  of  the  most  important  points 
to  be  considered.  "  Dropping  "  back  of  the  shoulders  and 
"  tucking  in  "  at  the  heart  girth  are  quite  common  faults. 
The  modern  lard  hog  lives  under  unnatural  conditions  which 
tend  to  produce  a  poor  constitution,  so  that  one  cannot  be 
too  careful  in  guarding  against  weakness  of  the  chest. 

Sides.  —  From  the  sides  of  the  hog  is  obtained  some  of 
the  best  meat.  In  bacon  hogs  this  point  is  most  important, 
and  in  lard  hogs  the  sides  are  valuable  for  packing.  In 
order  to  insure  the  maximum  amount  of  side  meat,  select 
the  animals  that  have  deep,  long  sides,  which  are  well  filled 
out,  indicating  thickness  and  weight.  Smoothness  of  sides 
is  also  desired ;  wrinkles  indicate  poor  quahty. 

Back.  —  As  is  the  case  with  all  meat  animals,  the  back 
is  very  important.  The  judge  should  get  his  first  impres- 
sions of  the  animal  from  its  back,  and  if  the  animal  is  defi- 
cient in  this  region,  it  should  be  given  low  rank.  The  back 
should  be  wide,  strong,  well  arched,  and  well  covered.     Fat 


igo  JUDGING  SWINE  AND   SHEEP 

backs  are  required  for  packing  purposes,  and  the  amount  of 
spare  ribs  also  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  animal's  back. 

Loin.  —  The  loin  is  the  region  from  the  last  rib  to  the  hip 
points,  and  here  the  hog  should  be  thick,  wide,  and  strong. 
Some  of  the  finest  cuts  of  pork  come  from  the  region  of  the 
loin,  and  the  market  is  wilHng  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  the 
strong  loined  hog  than  for  the  one  deficient  in  this  region. 

Belly  and  Flank.  —  In  the  lard  hog  the  belly  is  cheap  meat, 
and  the  less  of  this  the  better.  In  the  case  of  the  bacon  hog 
the  belly  goes  in  with  the  side,  and  is  thus  of  greater  value. 
In  either  case,  it  should  be  well  held  up  and  free  from  fiab- 
biness. 

In  the  region  of  the  flank,  the  lard  hog  should  be  well  let 
down,  making  the  underline  level  and  straight,  with  no 
depression  in  front  of  the  hind  leg.  Fleshiness  in  this  region 
indicates  fleshiness  throughout  the  carcass. 

Hip  and  Rump.  —  The  hips,  which  should  be  wide  apart, 
conforming  with  the  other  parts  of  the  body,  should  be 
smooth  and  well  covered  with  flesh.  The  rump  should  be 
long,  level,  and  wide.  Some  breeds  have  more  sloping 
rumps  than  others.  In  the  case  of  the  hog  that  has  the 
nicely  arched  back,  there  is  a  tendency  for  a  somewhat 
more  sloping  rump  than  in  the  case  of  the  hog  that  has  a 
more  level  back.  If  the  back  of  the  hog  is  well  arched,  one 
should  expect  to  find  a  long  rounding  rump,  evenly  fleshed 
and  smooth. 

Hams.  —  The  hams  of  the  lard  hog  form  one  of  the  most 
valuable  parts,  and  in  judging  swine  careful  examination 
should  be  made  of  this  region.  The  hog  with  low  flanks 
and  a  long,  well-shaped  rump  will  usually  have  a  well-shaped 
ham.  In  this  region  there  should  be  depth,  fullness,  and 
width.     While  the  hams  should  carry  as  much  flesh  as  pos- 


BACON  HOGS 


191 


sible,  the  judge  should  guard  against  flabby  hams.  The 
value  of  the  hams  depends  in  great  measure  upon  the  mix- 
ture of  fat  and  lean  meat.  Flabby,  blubbery  hams  are  un- 
desirable. 

Legs.  —  The  legs  of  the  hog  should  be  short  and  strong 
without  coarseness,  and  should  be  well  placed  under  the 
body.  Breeds  that  are  good  grazers  stand  up  on  their  legs 
better  than  those  of  the  extreme  lard  type,  because  they 
exercise  more  and  become  better  developed  in  those  parts. 
Weak  pasterns  should  be  guarded  against,  and  the  animal 
with  a  tendency  to  drop  down  on  its  dewclaws  should  be 
rejected.  In  the  case  of  fat  animals,  however,  this  may  be 
disregarded. 

JUDGING  BACON  HOGS 

In  recent  years  there  has  developed  a  great  demand  for 
bacon,  to  be  sold  in  cured  and  smoked  form.  The  consum- 
ers of  bacon  demand  firm  meat  without  too  much  fat.  To 
produce  this  meat,  the  bacon  hog  has  been  evolved.  The 
best  bacon  comes  from  the  sides  of  the  hog,  so  in  judging 
bacon  hogs,  one  should  pay  particular  attention  to  the 
animal  with  long,  deep,  firm  sides,  and  firm  flesh  throughout 
the  carcass.  These  are  the  points  worthy  of  particular 
study  in  the  bacon  hog. 

Condition  and  Quality.  —  The  thin  or  lean  hog  is  not  the 
best  for  bacon  purposes.  The  covering  of  flesh  is  very 
important,  and  this  should  be  firmer  than  that  of  the  lard 
hog,  but  not  so  thick.  The  animal  should  be  smooth 
throughout  and  entirely  free  from  wrinkles.  The  bones 
should  be  fine  and  the  skin  and  hair  soft  and  pliable. 

Form.  —  In  form,  the  bacon  hog  should  be  longer  and 
deeper  than  the  lard  hog,  without  the  extreme  thickness  and 


192  JUDGING   SWINE  AND   SHEEP 

width.  The  animal  must  be  uniform  in  width  throughout, 
and  all  tendency  toward  thickness  in  some  parts  should  be 
avoided.  The  snout  of  the  bacon  hog  is  longer  and  more 
slender  than  that  of  the  lard  hog,  and  the  animal  stands  up 
higher  on  its  legs. 

The  shoulders  should  be  smooth  and  free  from  coarseness, 
compact  on  top,  and  well  knit  together. 

The  hindquarters  of  the  bacon  hog  should  be  well  filled 
and  carried  down  well  toward  the  hocks.  Instead  of  the 
extremely  thick  and  fat  ham  found  on  the  fat  hog  we  here 
find  a  compact,  neat,  and  firm  quarter.  The  term  "  gam- 
mon "  is  applied  to  the  hams  of  the  bacon  hog. 

Bacon  hogs  are  more  active  than  lard  hogs.  They  are 
more  prolific,  and  produce  large  litters  of  very  active  and 
healthy  pigs. 

JUDGING  BREEDING   CLASSES 

To  be  a  judge  of  breeding  animals  one  should  be  familiar 
with  the  standards  of  excellence  for  the  various  breeds, 
and  should  also  be  experienced  in  handhng  them  so  as  to 
become  familiar  with  their  important  points. 

In  judging,  allowance  should  be  made  for  sex  differ- 
ences. Males  are  uniformly  heavy  in  the  forequarters,  so 
that  the  evenness  of  lines  called  for  on  the  score  card  will 
not  be  found  in  the  case  of  the  male.  Females  are  lighter 
in  the  forequarters  than  males,  but  are  proportionately 
wider  in  the  hindquarters.  Males  are  coarser  about  the 
head  and  neck  than  females.  In  disposition,  the  male  is 
aggressive,  active,  and  sometimes  more  or  less  vicious,  while 
the  female  is  generally  quiet  and  docile.  The  male  has 
coarser  bone,  skin,  and  hair,  and  is  about  20  per  cent  heavier 
at  maturity. 


SCORE   CARD 


193 


SCORE    CARD  FOR  JUDGING  SWINE 


Scale  of  Points 


GENERAL   APPEARANCE  —  25   POINTS 

Weight, estimate actual  lbs. . . . 

Form,  deep,  broad,  low,  long,  symmetrical,  com- 
pact, standing  squarely  on  legs 

Quality,  bone  clean  ;  hair  silky;  skin  soft;  head 
and  ears  refined,  evenly  covered  with  firm 
flesh 

Disposition,  quiet,  docile 


HEAD  AND  NECK  —  10  POINTS 

Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse 

Face,  short,  cheeks  full 

Forehead,  broad 

Eyes,  large,  mild,  full,  bright,  wide  apart 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine,  soft 

Jowl,  strong,  neat,  broad 

Neck,  thick,  medium  length 


FOREQUARTERS  —  13  POINTS 

Shoulder,  symmetrical,  broad,  deep,  full,  com- 
pact on  top 

Breast,  wide,  prominent,  well  let  down 

Legs,  straight,  short,  feet  and  pasterns  strong .  . 

BODY  — 32  POINTS 

Chest,  deep,  broad  ;  girth  large 

Sides,  deep,  lengthy  and  full 

Back,  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed 

Loin,  thick,  wide  and  strong 

Belly,  straight,  even,  and  firmly  fleshed 

Flank,  low  and  well  fleshed,  girth  large 


HINDQUARTERS— 20  POINTS 

Hips,  wide  apart,  smooth 

Rump,  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed,  smooth 

Hams,  firm,  heavily  fleshed,  deep  and  wide.  .  .  . 
Legs,  straight,  short;  feet,  and  pasterns  strong 


Total. 


Possible 
Score 


Points  Deficient 


Student's 
Score 


Corrected 


T.    AND    L.    ANIMAL    HUSB. 13 


194  JUDGING   SWINE   AND   SHEEP 

JUDGING  SHEEP 

Next  to  horses,  sheep  are  the  most  difficult  class  of  live 
stock  to  judge.  The  sheep  is  covered  by  a  coat  of  wool 
which,  in  the  show  ring,  is  generally  long  and  dense  enough 
to  hide  the  form  of  the  animal's  body.  The  skillful  shepherd 
by  the  clever  use  of  the  shears  can  trim  the  wool  so  that 
the  appearance  of  the  animal  is  very  deceptive.  In  judging 
sheep,  the  judge  must  rely  upon  his  hands  to  discover  the 
exact  form  of  the  animal.  He  who  would  become  skilled 
in  the  art  of  judging  sheep  must  train  his  hands  to  determine 
accurately  the  form  and  covering  of  flesh  on  the  animal's 
body  beneath  the  covering  of  wool.  To  avoid  the  possibility 
of  leaving  any  part  of  the  animal  unexamined,  the  judge 
should  adhere  to  a  regular  routine  of  handling  and  follow 
it  closely  in  the  examination  of  the  sheep. 

The  Form  of  the  Mutton  Sheep.  —  The  form  of  the  sheep 
sought  for  mutton  purposes  should  be,  in  general,  the  same 
as  that  looked  for  in  the  beef  animal  and  the  lard  hog. 
Good  development  in  the  parts  of  the  animal  upon  which 
the  best  meat  is  obtained  is  required  in  the  good  mutton 
sheep.  Were  the  demands  of  the  butcher  entirely  satis- 
fied, the  sheep  would  have  a  peculiar  form  indeed,  because 
butchers  call  for  an  animal  that  is  heavily  developed  in  the 
region  of  the  leg  of  mutton  and  along  the  back,  and  slightly 
developed  in  the  region  of  the  head,  neck,  and  legs.  This 
form  of  animal,  however,  is  an  impossibiHty,  and  the  man 
selecting  sheep  knows  that  in  actual  practice  the  butcher's 
ideal  can  only  be  approximated.  The  judge's  ideal  is  an 
animal  that  is  well  developed  in  all  the  essential  parts. 

Form.  —  The  mutton  sheep  should  be  low,  blocky,  and 
squarely  set  upon  short  legs,  with  the  body  as  long  as  possible 


MUTTON   SHEEP 


195 


without  sacrificing  the  compactness  essential  in  the  meat 
animal.  Symmetry,  or  the  correct  proportioning  of  parts, 
is  necessary  in  the  good  sheep.  An  even  covering  of  firm 
flesh  is  important.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  thicker 
the  covering  the  sheep  carries,  the  higher  will  be  the  killing 
percentage,  and  the  firmer  the  covering  the  better  will  be 
the  quahty  of  the  mutton.  Softness  of  flesh  indicates  that 
the  animal's  carcass  does  not  possess  the  correct  "  marbling" 
or  distribution  of  fat  and  lean,  and  in  this  case  one  may  sus- 
pect that  the  carcass  carries  surplus  fat. 

Quality.  —  The  quality  of  the  animal  is  indicated  by  the 
silkiness  of  the  hair  found  on  the  nose,  by  the  refinement  and 
clear  definition  of  the  tendons  at  the  back  of  the  foreleg, 
and  by  the  fineness  and  cleanness  of  the  bone.  Refinement 
in  these  parts  indicates  that  this  same  fineness  exists  in 
the  muscles  and  meat  of  the  sheep. 

Disposition.  —  In  temperament  the  animal  should  be 
quiet.  The  nervous,  restless  animal  lacks  fattening  tend- 
encies and  has  a  poorer  appetite  than  the  animal  of  the  op- 
posite disposition. 

Head  and  Neck.  —  The  face  of  the  sheep  should  be  short 
and  the  forehead  wide.  This  is  of  so  much  importance 
that  the  good  judge  can  often  select  the  best  feeding  sheep 
by  the  appearance  of  the  head  alone.  A  strong,  wide 
muzzle  indicates  breathing  capacity  and  constitution,  while 
thin  lips  indicate  quality.  Full  clear  eyes  indicate  health 
and  vitality.  The  neck  should  be  short  and  thick,  blending 
well  with  wide,  compact,  well-covered  shoulders,  making  the 
shoulder  vein  full  and  smooth. 

Chest.  —  The  chest  should  be  deep  and  wide,  giving  a 
large  girth,  which  indicates  sufficient  room  for  the  vital 
organs  and  for  feeding  capacity  as  well.     The  animal  should 


iq6  judging   swine  AND    SHEEP 

be  low  at  the  brisket,  and  this  part  of  the  sheep  should  be 
full  and  prominent. 

Legs.  —  The  legs  should  be  short,  to  reduce  the  waste 
in  this  part  of  the  body  to  the  minimum.  They  should 
also  be  straight,  strong,  and  placed  wide  apart. 

Body.  —  The  back  and  loin  of  the  sheep  are  very  impor- 
tant. It  is  from  this  region  that  the  judge  should  get  his 
impressions  of  the  worth  of  the  sheep.  A  short,  strong, 
straight,  wide  back,  well  covered  with  flesh,  indicates  at 
once  a  good  animal.  Width  and  thickness  of  loin  are  very 
essential,  as  in  this  region  some  very  choice  cuts  should  be 
found.  Well-arched  ribs  with  good  depth  indicate  that  the 
sheep  has  room  not  only  for  the  consumption  of  feed  but 
also  for  the  deposition  of  fat  upon  the  body.  A  full,  well- 
let-down  flank  indicates  that  the  sheep  is  carrying  flesh  and 
makes  a  straight  underline. 

Leg  of  Mutton.  — -  Since  the  leg  of  mutton  is  the  most 
valuable  portion  of  the  carcass,  development  in  the  region 
of  the  twist  and  thigh  is  especially  sought  for. 

Wool.  —  Although  the  butcher  is  not  especially  inter- 
ested in  the  wool,  no  sheep  is  completely  judged  for  breeding 
purposes  until  a  careful  examination  of  the  wool  has  been 
made.  One  should  also  bear  in  mind  the  general  rule,  that 
the  finer  and  more  compact  the  wool,  on  a  mutton  sheep, 
the  better  will  be  the  quality  of  its  meat.  In  judging  the 
fine-wool  breeds  which  are  raised  primarily  for  their  wool 
this  examination  is  of  the  first  importance. 

The  thickest  and  the  best  quality  of  wool  grows  in  the 
region  of  the  shoulder,  while  the  poorest  grade  grows  along 
the  belly.  When  examining  the  fleece,  part  it  with  the 
palms  of  the  hands,  not  with  the  finger  tips,  in  the  region 
of  the  shoulder  near  the  heart  girth.     Do  not  break  the 


EXAMINING  THE   FLEECE 


197 


wool  clusters  so  as  to  leave  the  fleece  open,  but  examine  it 
where  the  fleece  seems  to  part  naturally.  The  fleece  should 
also  be  examined  in  the  region  of  the  thigh,  because  a  very 
poor  quality  of  wool  grows  here  and  is  much  more  easily 
examined  than  on  the  belly.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  examine 
the  wool  on  the  belly  because  an  animal  in  poor  condition 
is  often  poorly  covered  in  this  region. 


Fig-  75.  —  Examining  wool  on  a  sheep. 

The  judge  should  look  for  both  quantity  and  quality  of 
wool,  although  it  is  generally  true  that  the  finer  the 
quality  of  the  wool  the  shorter  will  be  the  fiber,  and  the 
longer  the  fiber  the  coarser  will  be  the  wool.  The  factors 
that  determine  the  quantity  of  wool  are  density,  length 
of  fiber,  and  evenness  of  the  fleece  over  the  body  of  the 
animal. 

By  density  of  fleece  is  meant  compactness  of  its  fibers. 
To  one  seeking  market  wool  this  means  a  much  heavier  fleece, 
and  to  the  breeder  it  indicates  better  constitution  and  pro- 
tection against  inclement  weather.  The  sheep  with  the 
compact  coat  can  shed  rains  better  than  the  animal  with  an 
open  fleece.     A  heavy,  dense  coat  of  wool  also  prevents  the 


1 98  JUDGING  SWINE  AND   SHEEP 

radiation  of  heat  from  the  surface  of  the  body  and  thus 
enables  the  sheep  better  to  withstand  the  cold. 

The  length  of  the  fiber  not  only  indicates  the  amount  of 
wool  but  also  determines  the  use  to  which  it  will  be  put 
by  the  manufacturers.  In  the  making  of  worsted  goods,  a 
long  fiber  is  sought,  while  for  broadcloth  the  manufacturer 
seeks  a  shorter  staple. 

The  quality  of  wool  is  indicated  by  its  soundness,  purity, 
crimp,  luster,  brightness,  and  the  amount  of  yolk  to  be 
found  in  it.  Softness  may  be  determined  by  pressing  the 
fiat  of  the  hand  upon  the  surface  of  the  fleece.  Harshness 
of  fleece  is  generally  due  to  a  lack  of  yolk  or  oil  in  the  wool. 
Poor  feeding  or  exposure  to  the  weather  may  cause  a  harsh 
fleece.  Soil's  also  have  a  marked  influence  upon  the  softness 
of  fleece.  The  effect  of  good  care  cannot  be  overestimated 
in  its  influence  upon  the  fleece  as  well  as  upon  the  carcass 
of  the  sheep. 

The  souftdness  of  the  fleece  depends  upon  the  uniform 
strength  of  the  .fibers.  Fibers  with  weak  spots  in  them  are 
not  worth  so  much  to  the  manufacturer  as  are  uniformly 
strong  fibers.  Soundness  may  be  determined  by  taking  a 
small  bundle  of  fibers  from  the  fleece  and  twisting  it  into 
yarn.  If  the  fleece  is  sound  the  yarn  cannot  be  broken. 
Unsound  fibers  will  break  at  the  weak  spot.  Unsoundness 
of  fleece  also  indicates  the  care  which  the  animal  received. 
A  period  of  poor  feeding  or  of  poor  health  will  produce  a 
weak  place  in  the  w^ool. 

Crimp  refers  to  the  little  waves  or  kinks  that  are  found 
in  wool.  These  kinks  are  caused  by  the  flatness  of  the  fibers. 
Crimp  distinguishes  a  wool  fiber  from  a  fiber  of  hair,  which 
has  no  crimp.  In  fine  fleeces  of  good  quality  these  kinks 
are  numerous  and  uniform  in  size.     In  coarse  fleeces  the 


EXAMINING  THE   FLEECE  199 

crimp  is  open.     The  waves  or  kinks  should  be  of  uniform 
size  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  fiber. 

The  condition  of  wool  depends  upon  luster,  brightness, 
purity,  and  character  of  the  yolk,  and  is  influenced  by  the 
care  and  management  of  the  flock  as  well  as  by  the  breeding. 

In  examining  for  purity  look  for  dead  hairs,  commonly 
called  kemp.  These  can  easily  be  detected,  because  they 
are  straight  with  no  crimp.  They  are  usually  found  upon 
poorly  kept  sheep,  and  are  partly  due  to  exposure.  The 
manufacturer  does  not  want  kemp,  because  it  will  not  take 
the  dye  well. 

The  terms  luster  and  brightness  are  often  confused. 
Luster  refers  to  the  peculiar  sheen  found  upon  all  wool  and 
is  as  common  upon  the  darker-colored  wools  as  upon  the 
lighter  ones.  Lustrous  wool  takes  the  dye  somewhat  better 
than  wool  that  possesses  little  luster.  Brightness,  on  the 
other  hand,  refers  entirely  to  the  color  of  the  wool.  White, 
clean  fleeces  are  spoken  of  as  bright,  while  dark-colored, 
dirty  fleeces  are  said  to  be  dark.  Cleanliness,  then,  improves 
the  brightness  of  the  wool.  Dirty  fleeces  are  found  in 
places  where  sand  storms  fill  the  fleeces  with  wind-blown 
sand.  Sheep  that  are  forced  to  live  around  straw  stacks, 
or  are  kept  in  muddy  lots  with  steers  or  other  cattle,  where 
they  are  forced  to  He  down  in  filthy  places,  get  dirty  and 
their  fleeces  lack  brightness. 

The  yolk  is  the  oil  in  the  fleece.  It  is  of  no  particular  im- 
portance to  the  manufacturers  of  woolen  goods,  since  it 
is  all  washed  out  before  the  wool  is  used,  but  to  the  breeder 
presence  of  yolk  indicates  that  the  animal  is  in  good  physi- 
cal condition.  Feeding  has  a  great  influence  upon  the 
amount  of  yolk  that  the  sheep  secretes  ;  the  better  the  feed- 
ing the  greater  is  the  quantity  of  yolk. 


200 


JUDGING   SWINE   AND    SHEEP 


SCORE    CARD  FOR  JUDGING  MUTTON  SHEEP 


Scale  of  Points 


Age Teeth 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  24  POINTS 

Weight estimated actual  pounds 

according  to  age 

Form,  low,  long,  symmetrical,  compact,  and 
evenly  covered  with   firm  flesh 

Quality,  clean  bone  ;   silky  hair 

Temperament 

HEAD  AND  NECK— 9  POINTS 

Muzzle,  fair  size;  nostrils  large;  lips  this; 
mouth  large    

Eyes,  full ;   bright 

Face,  short,  bold  expression 

Forehead,  broad 

Ears,  fine,  erect 

Neck,  thick,  short ;  throat  clean 

FORE  QUARTERS  —  13  POINTS 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 

Shoulders,  covered,  compact 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  large  girth 

Brisket,  full,  prominent;  breast  wide 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  strong;  fore- 
arm full,  shank  smooth 

BODY  — 13  POINTS 

Back,  straight,  wide 

Loin,  broad,  thick 

Ribs,  deep,  arched 

Flank,  low,  thick,  making  underline  straight.. 
HINDQUARTERS  —  17  POINTS 

Hips,  smooth,  far  apart 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide 

Thighs,  full,  well  fleshed 

Twist,  plump,  deep 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong  ;  shank  smooth  .  .  .  . 
CONSTITUTION  —  10  POINTS 

Girth,    large 

Skin,  pink  color 

Fleece,  dense  and  even  over  body,  j'olk  abun- 
dant  

WOOL  —  14  POINTS 

Quantity,  long,  dense,  even 

Quality,  fine,  soft,  pure,  even 

Condition,   bright,   strong,   clean 


Points  Deficient 


Possible 
Score 


Total 


Student's  ! 
Score 


Corrected 


EXERCISES  201 

EXERCISES 

1.  Indicate  the  various  steps  in  their  proper  order  that  you 
would  take  in  selecting  the  best  animal  from  a  herd  of  swine. 

2.  What  are  the  principal  defects  to  be  noted  by  the  show 
ring  judge  when  judging  swine? 

3.  Show  how  you  would  pick  out  from  a  mixed  flock  the  best 
mutton  sheep. 

4.  What  would  be  your  method  of  selecting  breeding  ewes 
for  wool  production? 

5.  What  are  some  of  the  tricks  used  in  the  show  ring  for 
deceiving  the  judge  of  sheep  ? 

HOME  PROJECT 

From  the  home  herd  or  flock  select  the  two  best  animals  and 
fit  them  for  show.  Discard  the  poorer  of  the  two  just  before 
entry. 


CHAPTER  XII 
JUDGING   HORSES 

Judging  horses  is  the  most  difficult  and  at  the  same  time 
the  most  fascinating  task  of  the  Hve  stock  judge.  The 
judge  should  be  familiar  with  the  variations  in  type  due  to 
the  many  different  uses  to  which  horses  are  put ;  the  various 
breed  types ;  the  blemishes  and  unsoundnesses ;  and  the 
'^  tricks  of  the  trade  "  in  showing  horses.  All  these  com- 
bine to  make  horse  judging  the  highest  art  in  the  judging 
of  live  stock. 

BLEMISHES  AND   UNSOUNDNESS 

An  unsoundness  is  a  defect  of  a  horse,  a  predisposition 
towards  which  is  inherited  from  its  ancestors.  Blemishes 
are  defects  caused  by  injury,  such  as  bruises  and  w^re  cuts. 
While  blemishes  are  disfiguring,  undesirable,  and  hurt  the 
sale  of  a  horse,  they  do  not  disquahfy  the  breeding  animal. 

Horses  should  be  carefully  examined  for  unsoundness, 
because  in  the  judging  of  all  classes  no  unsound  horse  should 
be  awarded  a  place.  If  in  the  detailed  examination  in  the 
show  ring,  any  of  these  defects  are  discovered,  the  defective 
horse  should  be  retired  from  the  competition.  The  com- 
mon unsoundnesses  which  every  one  who  judges  horses 
should  very  readily  recognize  are :  poll  evil,  fistula  of  the 
withers    heaves,  bad  wind  or  roaring,  ringbone,  sidebone, 


PARTS   OF  A  HORSE 


203 


thoroughpin,  bone  and  bog  spavins,  curb,  stringhalt,  and 
defects  of  the  eyes  or  other  organs. 

Poll  Evil.  —  This  is  a  suppurating  sore  located  on  the  top 
of  the  head  just  back  of  the  hne  drawn  between  the  ears. 


/ifer^ssi^T 


'^m. 


1.  Poll 

2.  Forehead 

3.  Face 

4.  Muzzle 

5.  Throatlatch 

6.  Windpipe 

7.  Jugular  groove 

8.  Point  of  shoulder 

9.  Chest 

10.  Arm,  from  shoulder  point 

11.  Forearm 


Fig.  76.  —  Parts  of  a  horse. 

12.  Knee 

13.  Fetlock 

14.  Pastern 

15.  Neck 

16.  Crest 

17.  Withers 

18.  Back 

19.  Shoulder 

20.  Elbow 

21.  Loins 

22.  Coupling 


23.  Hip 

24.  Croup 

25.  Flank 

26.  Stifle 

27.  Hip  joint 

28.  Thigh 

29.  Quarter 

30.  Point  of  hock 

31.  Hock  joint 

32.  Gaskin  or  lower  thigh 

33.  Coronet 


It  discharges  pus  and  is  very  painful  to  the  animal.  The 
difficulty  in  curing  the  trouble  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  sore 
cannot  be  well  drained  because  no  outlet  can  be  made  from 


204  JUDGING   HORSES 

below.  Horses  that  have  been  afflicted  with  this  trouble 
show  scars,  and  object  to  being  handled  about  their  heads. 
Fistula  of  the  Withers.  —  This  trouble,  of  the  same  gen- 
eral nature  as  poll  evil,  is  located  on  top  of  the  withers  or  at 
the  top  of  the  shoulders.  Horses  that  have  been  affected 
with  fistula  generally  show  scars.  The  neck  may  show  a 
depression  and  is  often  sensitive  to  the  touch. 

Heaves.  —  This  disease  affects  the  lungs  of  the  horse  and 
is  generally  noticeable  after  eating  too  greedily  of  bulky  hay 
or  dusty  feeds,  or  after  a  heavy  pull  or  violent  exercise. 
The  affected  horse  breathes  in  a  peculiar  fashion,  most  notice- 
able in  the  region  of  the  flank,  the  air  being  expelled  from 
the  lungs  in  two  short  jerks.  Horses  with  this  disease  are 
generally  shorter  of  breath  than  are  sound  horses,  and  cough 
after  exertion. 

Roaring.  —  Roaring  is  a  disease  which  affects  the  larynx 

or  windpipe.     When  the  horse  is  exercised  at  a  rapid  rate  or 

worked  under  a  heavy  pull,  loud  breathing  or  roaring  results. 

Ringbone.  —  Ringbone  affects  the  pastern  bone  of  the 

horse,  and  appears  as  an  enlargement  encircling  this  bone. 

Sidebones.  —  Sidebones  affect  the 
feet  of  the  horse.  The  lateral  car- 
tilages beneath  the  skin  at  the  hoof 
head  above  the  heel  become  ossified, 
or  turn  to  bone.  Horses  with  nar- 
row feet,  or  low  or  too  prominent  at 
the  heels,  are  most  susceptible  to 

Fig.  ^^.       a  prominent   side-       ,,   .     ^  i  ,  t-,        ^'  'j.-         ^        'J 

bone.     The  cross  marks  the       thlS  trOUblc.       PrcdlSpOSltlOU  tO  Side- 
location  of  this  defect.  ,  •      •     i         -^^      i  i  •  i  'jI 

bones  is  inherited,  and  animals  with 
them  should  not  be  used  for  breeding  purposes. 

Thoroughpin.  —  This  is  found  just  above  the  hock  of  the 
horse.     It  appears  as  a  swelling  or  filling  between  the  lower 


UNSOUNDNESS 


205 


Fig.  78.  — Unsound  hock  joint, 
showing  bog  spavin. 


thigh  bone  and  the  large  tendon  back  of  it.  By  pressing 
with  the  fingers  either  on  the  outside  or  the  inside  of  the 
enlargement,  the  sweUing  may  be 
made  to  oscillate  back  and  forth. 

Spavin.  —  Spavins  are  of  two  kinds, 
bone  spavin  and  bog  spavin.  The 
bone  spavin  affects  the  bones  of  the 
hock,  and  generally  appears  as  an 
enlargement  at  the  lower  inner  as- 
pect of  the  hock  joint.  When  form- 
ing, they  are  small  and  painful,  and 
are  called  '-'jacks"  by  some  horsemen. 
The  bog  spavin  appears  as  a  swell- 
ing of  the  entire  hock  joint.  The 
swelling  generally  appears  on  the  inside  of  the  hock,  al- 
though the  entire  joint  may  be  affected. 

Curb.  —  Curb  shows  as  a  swelling 
at  the  back  of  the  hind  leg  just  below 
the  hock.  It  is  usually  associated 
with  "  sickle "  or  crooked  hocks. 
Sometimes  curb  appears  upon  well- 
formed  legs,  and  may  be  due  to  a 
hard  pull  or  a  sudden  strain. 

Stringhalt.  —  This  is  a  disease  of 
the  nerves,  that  usually  appears  in 
only  one  of  the  hind  legs.  In  the 
case  of  affected  animals,  the  feet  are 
lifted  quickly  from  the  ground,  raised 
abnormally  high,  and  set  down  with 
the  same  vigor.  If  the  horse  is 
"  warmed  up  "  it  is  often  not  noticeable,  but  if  the  animal 
is  allowed  to  stand  quietly  for  some  time  and  then  sud- 


Fig.  79.  —  Unsound  hock 
joint,  showing  large  curb. 


2o6  JUDGING  HORSES 

denly  started  forward  or  backward,  the  trouble  can  be 
detected. 

Defective  Eyes  or  Other  Organs.  —  The  horse  should  be 
examined  for  blindness,  and  to  see  that  the  eyes  are  of  the 
same  color.  In  examining  for  defective  sight,  care  should 
be  taken  not  to  get  the  hands  too  close  to  the  eye,  as  breezes 
from  the  waving  of  the  hands,  or  the  touching  of  long  hairs 
that  are  found  about  the  eyes  may  cause  the  horse  to  close 
its  eyes,  even  though  the  animal  may  have  good  sight. 
A  sound  eye  appears  translucent.  A  blind  eye  is  opaque. 
One  should  notice  if  the  horse  hears  well.  If  the  ears 
appear  too  alert  or  move  too  much,  defective  ears  should  be 
suspected. 

The  horse's  mouth  should  be  examined  for  poor  teeth. 
The  upper  row  of  incisors  should  strike  the  lower  row. 
The  horse  may  be  parrot-mouthed,  in  which  case  the  upper 
jaw  protrudes  beyond  the  lower  one  ;  or  it  may  be  undershot, 
in  which  case  the  lower  jaw  extends  beyond  the  upper. 

JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 

The  draft  horse  is  used  to  draw  heavy  loads  at  a  slow 
rate  of  speed,  and  is  so  built  that  the  greatest  strength 
may  be  obtained  without  regard  to  speed.  The  bones  and 
muscles  of  the  horse  are  short  and  strong.  The  whole 
build  of  the  animal  is  such  that  the  load  is  brought  as  nearly 
as  possible  to  the  power. 

Age.  —  The  age  of  the  horse  is  usually  indicated  by  its 
teeth.  The  horse's  teeth  are  classed  as  incisors  or 
cutting  teeth,  canine  or  tearing  teeth,  and  cheek  teeth 
which  are  made  up  of  premolars  and  molars.  There  are 
12  incisors,  6  on  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  jaw; 
12  to  14  premolars,  either  3  or  4  each  side  in  the  upper  and 


EXAMINING  THE  TEETH  207 

3  on  each  side  in  the  lower  jaw ;  and  12  molars,  3  on  each 
side  in  both  upper  and  lower  jaws,  making  a  total  of  40  or 
42  permanent  teeth  in  the  mouth  of  the  mature  horse. 
The  colt  does  not  have  a  "  full  mouth." 

Changes  take  place  quite  uniformly  in  the  number  of 
temporary  and  permanent  teeth  found  in  the  mouth  of  the 
young  horse,  and  in  the  appearance  of  the  permanent  teeth 
as  the  horse  advances  in  age.  To  determine  the  age  of  the 
animal,  it  is  necessary  to  examine  and  note  the  appearance 
of  the  incisor  teeth  only.  Permanent  teeth  are  much  larger 
than  the  colt's  temporary  ones. 

At  about  the  age  of  2^  years,  the  central  pair  of  temporary 
incisors  in  both  upper  and  lower  jaws  is  replaced  by  per-, 
manent  teeth,  so  that  if  there  is  present  in  the  mouth 
of  the  horse  one  pair  of  permanent  incisors  the  animal 
is  between  2^  and  3!  years  of  age.  At  about  the  age 
of  3i  years,  one  incisor  on  each  side  of  the  central 
pair  in  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  jaw  is  replaced  by 
new  permanent  teeth,  so  that  the  presence  of  two  pairs 
of  permanent  incisors  and  one  pair  of  temporary  in- 
cisors indicates  that  the  horse  is  from  3^  to  4^  years  old. 
At  about  the  age  of  4^  or  5  years,  the  remaining  temporary 
incisors  are  replaced  by  permanent  teeth,  so  that  at  this 
age  the  horse  has  a  full  mouth  of  permanent  incisors  and  is 
spoken  of  as  having  a  ''  full  mouth."  Up  to  five  years  of 
age  there  is  not  much  difficulty  in  determining  the  age  of 
the  horse,  because  the  temporary  incisors,  which  are  white 
and  smooth  with  a  restriction  about  the  neck  of  the  tooth 
near  the  gums,  are  not  hard  to  distinguish  from  the  perma- 
nent incisors,  which  are  much  longer,  broader,  harder,  and 
stronger. 

The  teeth  of  horses  are  constructed  differently  from  those 


2o8  JUDGING  HORSES 

of  any  other  animal  in  that  they  have  a  deep  cavity  in  the 
center  of  the  wearing  surface.  This  cavity,  which  is  partly 
filled  with  a  sort  of  cement,  becomes  darkened  with  deposits 
of  food,  and  is  usually  called  the  ''  cup  ''  or  "  mark  "  of  the 
tooth.  As  the  horse  advances  in  age,  the  tooth  wears  down 
about  the  cup,  and  in  time  it  disappears  from  the  tooth. 
It  takes  about  three  years  for  the  cups  to  disappear  from 
the  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw,  and  about  six  years  for  them  to 
disappear  from  the  upper  jaw,  because  in  the  upper  teeth  the 
cups  are  deeper.  From  the  age  of  five  years  the  principal 
changes  in  the  appearance  of  the  teeth  are  as  follows. 
At  about  the  age  of  six  years  the  cups  or  marks  have  dis- 
appeared from  the  lower  central  incisors,  at  the  age  of  seven 
years  the  cups  disappear  from  the  lower  incisors  next  the 
central  pair,  and  at  the  age  of  eight  years  the  cups  have 
disappeared  from  all  the  lower  incisors.  At  about  the  age 
of  nine  years  the  cups  disappear  from  the  upper  central 
incisors  ;  they  disappear  from  the  incisors  next  to  the  central 
upper  pair  at  the  age  of  ten  years,  and  at  the  age  of  eleven 
years  no  cups  are  to  be  found  on  the  incisor  teeth  of  the 
horse.  As  the  horse  advances  in  age  the  teeth  seem  to 
project  forward  as  viewed  from  the  side,  and  the  wearing 
surface  of  the  teeth  becomes  triangular  in  form  with  the  base 
of  the  triangle  next  to  the  lips  of  the  animal. 

In  judging,  it  is  well  to  be  able  to  tell  the  age  of  horses 
by  the  teeth  up  to  the  age  of  five  years,  so  that  a  horse  will 
not  be  allowed  to  enter  a  wrong  class  according  to  age. 
The  teeth  of  horses  are  often  "  bishoped  "  or  chipped  out, 
and  made  to  appear  Kke  those  of  young  horses. 

Height.  —  The  height  of  the  horse  is  reckoned  in  ''  hands." 
A  "  hand  "  is  four  inches.  The  height  is  measured  by  a 
vertical  line  let  fall  from  the  top  of  the  withers  to  the  ground 


HEIGHT  AND   WEIGHT  209 

just  back  of  the  heel.  The  horse  should  be  led  on  to  a  hard 
floor  and  so  stood  that  all  four  feet  are  under  the  body  in 
normal  position  when  the  measurement  is  made.  A  draft 
horse  should  be  at  least  16  hands  high.  The  desirable 
height  is  1 6i  to  17  hands.  Horses  above  that  height  are 
somewhat  difficult  to  care  for,  and  are  hard  to  match. 

Weight.  —  The  score  card  allows  four  points  for  the 
weight  of  the  draft  horse.  If  all  the  horses  competing  are 
above  1500  pounds  in  weight  this  allowance  is  sufficient, 
but  weight  is  the  factor  that  determines  w^hether  or  not  a 
horse  belongs  in  the  draft  class.  Without  weight,  the  ani- 
mal lacks  the  powxr  to  start  heavy  loads  with  ease.  The 
point  is  well  illustrated  in  the  case  of  the  railway  locomo- 
tive, which  is  dependent  to  a  great  extent  upon  its  weight, 
giving  it  power  to  grip  the  rails. 

The  market  price  of  the  draft  horse  depends  largely 
upon  its  weight.  Statistics  show  that  a  price  of  $25.00  is 
received  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  weight  above  1400 
pounds.  Men  often  take  advantage  of  the  difference  in 
price  between  light  and  heavy  horses,  and  buy  thin  horses 
possessing  good  quality  and  large  frame  on  the  market, 
feed  them  until  they  have  increased  in  weight  from  100  to 
300  pounds,  return  them  to  the  market,  and  make  a  good 
profit  on  the  increased  price  oft'ered  for  the  increase  in 
weight  and  the  improved  appearance  and  condition  of  the 
horses.  There  is  always  a  strong  demand  for  heavy  horses, 
but  there  is  a  limited  demand  for  extremely  heavy  horses, 
because  they  are  hard  to  match  and  must  either  be  worked 
alone  or  as  middle  horses  in  three-horse  teams. 

Form.  —  The  form  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  such  that 
the  greatest  weight  is  compacted  into  the  least  space,  and 
the  center  of  gravity  thus  brought  close  to  the  ground. 

T.   AND   L.    ANIMAL   HUSB. 1 4 


2IO  JUDGING  HORSES 

The  working  parts  of  the  body  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  levers  will  give  the  animal  the  greatest  power  to  pull. 
Great  breadth  and  massiveness  in  all  parts  of  the  horse 
indicate  strength  and  give  the  animal  required  weight. 
S3anmetry,  or  correct  proportion  of  the  parts  of  the  body 
to  one  another,  lends  beauty  of  appearance  and  increases 
efficiency  as  well.  The  animal  should  be  blocky,  short 
legged,  and  close  to  the  ground. 

Quality.  —  Quality  is  a  term  used  to  designate  degree  of 
refinement  in  physical  make-up.  Over-refinement  should 
not  be  sought  for  in  the  draft  horse.  Weight  and  refine- 
ment are  two  opposite  characters,  and  extreme  refinement 
is  obtained  only  at  the  sacrifice  of  weight,  which  is  the  first 
and  most  important  essential.  The  bones  of  the  animal, 
while  large  and  strong,  should  be  free  from  roughness.  The 
tendons,  wherever  they  may  be  seen  on  the  body  of  the 
horse,  should  be  large,  strong,  and  clearly  defined.  The 
skin  should  feel  soft  and  pHable  beneath  the  touch  of  the 
hand,  and  the  hair  should  be  fine  and  silky.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  of  the  "  feather,"  which  is  the  hair  that  grows 
from  the  back  of  the  cannon  bone  from  the  knee  to  the  fet- 
lock joint  in  the  hairy-legged  breeds. 

Action.  —  Although  strength  is  the  primary  requisite 
and  great  speed  is  not  essential,  good  action  is  an  important 
qualification  of  the  draft  horse.  Judgment  should  not  be 
passed  until  the  animal  has  been  made  to  move.  Free, 
strong  movement  indicates  vigor  and  good  condition,  while 
listless  action  indicates  sluggishness.  Action  also  serves 
to  bring  out  defects  in  the  structure  and  working  parts  of 
the  body  which  might  otherwise  be  hidden. 

In  examining  for  action,  the  horse  should  be  led  straight 
away  from  the  judge  and  viewed  from  the  rear.     The  feet 


ACTION  211 

should  be  carried  forward  in  a  straight  line.  Paddling, 
or  throwing  the  toes  outward  as  they  are  carried  forward, 
and  winging,  the  opposite  defect,  are  both  equally  bad. 
The  hocks  should  also  be  carried  straight  forward.  If  the 
points  of  the  hocks  turn  outward,  carrying  the  toes  of  the 
hind  feet  too  close  together,  the  horse  cannot  get  so  much 
strength  for  pulling  and  is  classed  as  defective  in  the  hocks. 
In  action,  the  feet  should  be  lifted  from  the  ground  with  a 
snap,  and  the  joints  near  the  feet  should  be  so  flexed  that 
the  horse  will  show  the  sole  of  each  foot  when  viewed  from 
the  rear. 

The  horse  should  also  be  led  straight  back  toward  the 
judge,  so  that  a  front  view  of  action  may  be  obtained. 
From  this  view,  the  judge  can  get  an  impression  of  the 
carriage  of  the  horse's  head,  and  obtain  a  better  view  of 
the  movement  of  the  feet.  The  style  and  life  of  the  horse 
can  also  be  observed  from  the  front.  The  judge  should 
also  obtain  a  side  view  of  the  horse  in  action.  The  stride 
should  be  long  and  springy.  ^'  Interfering,"  or  ''  forging," 
which  is  the  striking  of  one  foot  with  another,  should  be 
watched  for  while  the  horse  is  in  action. 

The  walk  of  the  draft  horse  is  somewhat  more  important 
than  the  trot.  The  walk  should  be  free,  elastic,  springy, 
snappy,  regular,  and  straight  away.  The  trot  should  be 
free  and  bold,  springy  without  lifting  the  body  too  high 
from  the  ground,  and  should  be  straight  away  in  the  line  of 
draft.  The  action  of  a  horse  should  never  be  passed  upon 
until  both  walk  and  trot  are  observed. 

Temperament.  —  The  draft  horse  should  be  energetic, 
but  the  fiery  disposition  of  the  fast  horse  is  not  expected. 
In  temperament,  the  animal  should  be  quiet,  or  phlegmatic, 
as  opposed  to  the  more  nervous  disposition  of  the  horse 


212  JUDGING   HORSES 

developed  for  speed  alone.  A  peaceable,  quiet  disposition 
is  desired,  and  the  animal  that  will  conserve  its  strength 
for  work,  even  in  the  midst  of  most  exciting  surroundings, 
is  the  horse  best  suited  for  draft  purposes. 

Head.  —  The  head  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  large 
enough  to  be  in  proportion  with  the  rest  of  the  body.  The 
proper  size  can  only  be  learned  by  experience.  It  should 
be  well  carried  to  give  style  and  finish  to  the  animal's  ap- 
pearance. A  straight  profile  is  generally  found  on  the  horse 
of  greatest  intelligence ;  the  rounding  profile,  which  gives 
the  Roman  nose  to  the  animal,  may  indicate  stubbornness, 
and  the  incurving  profile  is  usually  found  on  the  horse  that 
is  easily  controlled,  but  of  small  capacity  for  training. 
Profiles  of  horses  vary  with  the  breed. 

Forehead.  —  The  forehead  covers  that  part  of  the  head 
extending  from  a  line  drawn  between  the  eyes  back  or  up 
to  a  line  drawn  between  the  ears.  It  should  be  broad  and 
full,  indicating  intelligence. 

Eyes.  —  The  eyes  should  be  bright,  full,  clear,  and  of  the 
same  color.  Clearness  and  brightness  of  the  eyes  indicate 
intelligence  and  a  generally  healthy  condition.  The  eye  is 
a  good  index  to  the  disposition  of  the  horse.  Small  eyes 
usually  indicate  a  mean  disposition;  large  mild  eyes,  a 
good  one.  The  judge  should  examine  carefully  for  cases 
of  blindness,  as  these  are  disqualifications. 

Ears.  —  The  ears  should  be  of  proportionate  size,  which 
is  best  told  by  experience.  The  way  a  horse  carries  his 
ears  is  a  good  index  to  the  disposition  of  the  animal. 
Alertness  of  the  ears  shows  vigor  and  life.  While  move- 
ment of  the  ears  generally  indicates  spirit,  it  may  also 
indicate  defective  eyesight,  a  condition  which  should  be 
carefully  inspected. 


HEAD   AND   SHOULDERS  213 

Muzzle.  —  The  nostrils,  lips,  and  external  mouth  parts 
are  included  in  the  muzzle.  The  nostrils  should  be  large, 
giving  room  for  free  and  easy  breathing;  but  if  they  are 
distended  too  much  it  may  be  an  indication  that  the  ani- 
mal at  one  time  suffered  from  overheating.  The  lips  should 
be  fine  and  firmly  held  together,  indicating  a  tense  muscu- 
lar system.  Flabby  and  drooping  lips  are  usually  found  on 
sluggish  horses. 

Lower  Jaw.  —  The  lower  jaw  should  be  wide  to  conform 
with  the  general  width  desired  throughout  the  body.  The 
spaces  between  the  two  parts  of  the  lower  jawbone  should 
be  wide  and  free  from  fleshiness  or  lumps  of  any  sort. 

Neck.  —  The  neck  of  the  draft  horse  should  be  well 
muscled,  neatly  arched,  and  blend  gracefully  into  the 
shoulder.  A  "  ewe  neck,"  or  one  that  curves  downward, 
is  very  undesirable,  detracting  greatly  from  the  appearance. 
The  throatlatch  should  be  clean  and  free  from  swellings. 
The  windpipe  should  be  large,  for  free  breathing. 

Shoulders.  —  The  shoulders  should  slope  gently  and  be 
smooth,  blending  well  into  the  neck  in  front  and  the  body 
at  the  rear.  Very  steep  shoulders  are  undesirable,  because 
in  pulling  too  much  of  the  weight  will  be  borne  near  the 
lower  point  of  the  shoulder.  If  they  are  too  sloping,  how- 
ever, the  reverse  condition  obtains. 

Arm.  —  The  arm  of  the  horse,  extending  from  the 
shoulder  joint  to  the  elbow  joint,  should  be  strong  and  well 
muscled. 

Forearm.  —  The  forearm,  which  extends  from  the  elbow 
to  the  knee,  should  be  long  and  muscular,  indicating 
great  strength. 

Knees.  —  The  knees  should  be  free  from  pufhness,  should 
be  flat  and  large,  allowing  plenty  of  room  for  articulation 


214 


JUDGING  HORSES 


of  the  joint  and  attachment  of  muscles.  Knees  that  are 
sHghtly  flexed  and  held  forward  when  the  horse  is  standing 
are  called  '^  buck  knees." 

Cannons.  —  The  cannon  bones  are  really  round,  but 
when  properly  supported  by  sufficient  tendons,  appear  flat. 
They  extend  from  the  knee  to  the 
fetlock  joint  and  should  be  short 
and  free  from  enlargements.  Splints, 
which  are  small,  bony  growths,  some- 
times appear  on  the  inside  of  the 
front  cannon  bones.  While  they  sel- 
dom cause  lameness,  they  are  unde- 
sirable, especially  upon  light,  fancy 
driving  horses.  Clean,  strong  ten- 
dons are  desired,  and  any  tendency 
toward  puffiness  is  objectionable.  If 
the  cannon  bones  are  too  small  the 
knees  have  the  appearance  of  being 
set  back  too  far.     This  defect  is  called  ''  calf  kneed." 

Fetlocks.  —  The  fetlock  joint  is  located  between  the 
cannon  and  the  pastern  bones.  These  joints  should  be 
large,  strong,  and  free  from  puffiness. 

Pasterns.  —  Although  only  three  points  are  given  to 
pasterns  on  the  score  card,  the  setting  and  length  of  the 
pastern  bones  are  very  important  in  the  conformation  of  the 
horse.  These  bones  should  be  moderately  long  and  slope 
at  an  angle  of  about  45°.  If  the  pasterns  are  short  and 
steep,  the  horse  will  have  a  stiff,  stilty  action.  The  horse's 
foot  receives  a  heavy  blow  when  his  weight  is  brought  down 
upon  it  during  action.  If  the  pastern  is  sloping,  a  great  deal 
of  the  force  of  the  blow  is  broken  or  absorbed.  This  is  not 
so  in  the  case  of  the  horse  with  the  short  steep  pastern,  in 


Fig.  80.  —  Unsound  knees. 


PASTERNS 


21 


which  the  force  of  the  blow  is  trans- 
mitted undiminished  through  the  joints 
to  the  animal's  body.  The  horse  with 
the  moderately  long  and  sloping  pas- 
tern will  have  better  action,  and  will 
also  be  better  able  to  endure  the  shocks 
of  hard  city  streets.  Too  long  and  slop- 
ing pasterns  are  likewise  objectionable 
because  they  are  likely  to  be  weak. 

Feet.  —  It  has  been  said  that  in 
examining  a  horse,  one  should  begin 
at  the  ground  and  work  upward,  and 
then  work  down  to  ground  again, 
meaning  that  the  part  of  the  horse  that  supports  it  at  the 
ground  is  the  most  important  part.    In  judging  horses,  strict 


Fig.  8i.  —  A  good  type  of 
draft-horse  pasterns. 


Fig. 


82.  —  Side  views  of  forelegs.     The  drawing  at  the  left  shows  correct  conforma- 
tion.    The  others  show  common  defects. 


AMiin^^^^ 


Li 


<"    'fc        ^ 


Fig.  83.  —  Front  views  of  forelegs.     The  drawing  at  the  left  shows  correct  conforma- 
tion.    The  others  show  common  defects. 


2i6  JUDGING  HORSES 

attention  should  be  paid  to  the  feet.  The  larger  the  foot, 
the  more  of  the  shock  will  it  be  able  to  absorb,  and  the  less 
will  there  be  transmitted  to  the  upper  parts  of  the  body. 
The  foot  should  be  large  at  the  hoof  head,  so  as  to  give 
greater  freedom  for  articulation  in  the  movement  of  the 
foot,  and  thus  lessen  the  susceptibility  of  the  horse  to  foot 
troubles. 

The  feet  should  be  of  the  same  size,  and  point  straight 
forward.  In  front  they  should  slope  gently  from  the  top  to 
the  ground.  A  very  flat  foot  is  too  low  at  the  heel.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  foot  is  very  steep,  the  pastern  of  the 
horse  is  usually  steep,  which  has  already  been  noted  as  an 
objectionable  feature. 

The  quahty  of  the  foot  is  very  important.  The  horn,  of 
which  the  outside  is  composed,  should  be  dense  and  waxy, 
not  dry  and  flaky.  The  condition  of  the  foot  can  be  greatly 
influenced  by  the  treatment.  If  kept  on  hard  floors,  and 
worked  on  paved  streets,  the  feet  will  appear  flaky,  and  will 
be  more  likely  to  crack  than  if  the  animal  is  kept  on  a  dirt 
floor  and  worked  a  part  or  all  of  the  time  on  soft  earth. 
A  poor  horseshoe  may  also  work  great  injury  to  a  horse's 
feet. 

Chest.  —  The  chest  is  that  part  of  the  body  that  contains 
the  heart  and  lungs.  Its  capacity  is  measured  by  the 
length  of  the  girth,  the  distance  around  the  body  of  the 
horse,  back  of  the  shoulders.  At  this  point,  the  animal 
should  be  deep  and  wide,  indicating  that  there  is  sufficient 
room  for  large,  vigorous  organs.  The  breastbone  should 
be  low,  providing  ample  chest  space  and  giving  the  low- 
down,  blocky  appearance  so  essential  in  a  valuable  draft 
horse. 

Ribs.  —  The  form  of  the  body  depends  to  a  large  degree 


CHEST  AND   BACK  217 

upon  the  shape  of  the  ribs.  The  ribs  should  be  well 
arched,  springing  out  from  the  backbone.  This  will  make 
a  broad  back,  furnishing  room  for  the  attachment  of  strong 
muscles.  They  should  be  well  carried  down,  forming  a 
roomy  cavity  for  the  digestive  organs,  and  giving  to  the 
animal  a  cylindrical  appearance.  The  distance  from  the 
last  rib  to  the  hips  should  be  short,  forming  what  is  called 
a  "  short  couple."  The  round-ribbed,  short-coupled  an- 
imal is  stronger,  healthier,  and  more  easily  kept  in  good 
condition  thereby. 

Back.  —  The  back,  extending  from  the  shoulders  to  the 
hips,  should  be  short,  wide,  and  strong.  Low  and  long 
backs  are  weak  ones.  The  male  should  have  a  shorter  back 
and  shorter  coupling  than  the  female,  in  which  more  length 
is  allowable. 

Loins.  —  The  loin  is  the  region  between  the  last  rib  and 
the  hips,  constituting  what  has  been  referred  to  as  the 
"  coupling."  One  should  look  for  a  short,  wide,  muscular 
loin.  When  the  back  of  the  horse  becomes  weak  the 
attack  generally  affects  the  loin  first,  and  most  violently; 
the  horse  sustaining  an  injury  of  this  kind  often  losing  the 
power  to  move. 

Underline.  —  The  underline  should  be  long  and  low,  and 
the  legs  short.  The  horse  with  the  long  belly  and  the  short 
back  is  the  best-shaped  animal.  In  the  region  of  the  flank, 
the  animal  should  be  low  with  no  tendency  toward  ''  tuck- 
ing up,"  as  this  indicates  an  unthrifty  animal.  Deficiency 
in  the  region  of  the  flank  also  means  weakness  of  the 
thigh,  a  point  in  which  the  draft  horse  should  be  es- 
pecially strong. 

Hips.  —  From  one  hip  point  to  the  other,  the  horse  should 
be  wide,  level,  and  well  covered  with  muscle.     The  female 


2l8 


JUDGING   HORSES 


is  usually  wider  and  roomier  in  this  region  than  the  male. 
In  the  mare  width  and  roominess  between  the  hips  indi- 
cate good  breeding  qualities. 

Croup.  —  The  croup  of  the  horse  corresponds  to  the  rump 
of  the  meat-producing  animal.     It  extends  from  the  hips 


Fig.  84.  —  A  croup  of  good  draft  type. 


Fig.  85.  —  A  steep  croup. 


back  to  the  tail,  and  on  the  good  horse  is  long,  level,  and 
wide.  Steepness  and  shortness  of  the  croup  are  common 
defects  of  horses.  The  horse  with  the  short,  steep  croup 
can  turn  quickly.  This  is  especially  desirable  in  the 
case  of  the  cattle  pony.  On  the  other  hand,  the  horse 
with  the  long,  flat  croup  can  move  with  the  greater 
rapidity  in  a  straight  line. 

Thighs.  —  The  thigh  bones  extend  from  the  hips  to  the 
stifle  joints.  The  region  below  the  croup  and  to  the  rear 
of  the  flank  is  known  as  the  thigh.  The  thigh  should  be 
long,  deep,  and  well  covered  with  muscle.  A  horse  that 
has  strong  thighs  is  a  much  stronger  horse  than  the  one 
that  is  deficient  in  this  region. 

Quarters.  —  The  flesh  and  muscles  between  the  thigh 


HIND   LEGS 


219 


bones  are  called  the  quarters.  In  this  part  of  the  body 
the  horse  should  be  plump,  and  well  let  down.  The 
scant,  shallow  quarter  indicates  a  weak  horse  and  a  poor 
feeder. 

Stifles.  —  The  stifle  is  the  joint  between  the  thigh  bone 
and  the  lower  thigh  or  gaskin.  In  this  region  the  horse 
should  be  well  muscled,  the  joint  large  and  strong  and  held 
up  close  to  the  body. 

Gaskins.  —  The  gaskins,  or  lower  thigh  bones,  extend 
from  the  stifle  to  the  hock  joints.  They  should  be  long, 
wide,  and  heavily  covered  with  muscle,  on  both  the  outside 
and  inside  of  the  legs. 

Hocks.  —  The  hock  joint,  located  between  the  gaskin 
and   the  hind  cannon  bone,  is  the  most  important  joint 


Fig.  86.  —  Side  views  of  hind  legs.     The  drawing  on  the  left  shows  correct  conforma- 
tion.    The  others  show  common  defects. 


Fig.     87.  —  Rear  views  of  hind  legs.     The  drawing  on  the  left  shows  correct  con- 
formation.   The  others  show  common  defects. 


2  20  JUDGING   HORSES 

in  the  structure  of  the  horse.  It  is  the  fulcrum  of  one  of  the 
principal  levers  of  the  animal's  body,  and  through  it  must 
pass  all  the  power  utilized  by  the  horse  in  pulling  or  moving 
about. 

The  hocks  should  be  large,  to  allow  for  perfect  freedom 
of  motion  and  for  the  attachment  of  muscles.  From  the 
front  to  the  rear  they  should  be  deep,  giving  more  power  to 
the  levers.  They  should  be  clean  and  free  from  pufhness, 
and  it  is  of  equal  importance  that  they  be  free  also  from 
the  unsoundnesses  common  to  these  parts,  namely,  spavin, 
curb,  and  thoroughpin. 

The  proper  setting  or  conformation  of  the  hock  may  be 
determined  by  dropping  a  plumb-line  from  the  point  of  the 
buttock  down  the  rear  of  the  hind  leg  as  shown  in  Fig.  86  and 
Fig.  87.  If  the  hock  is  properly  shaped,  the  line  will  pass 
down  the  rear  of  the  hind  cannon  bone  from  the  hock  to 
the  heel,  dividing  the  heel  in  the  middle.  Viewed  from  the 
side,  the  line  should  be  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the 
hind  cannon  bone. 

If  the  hock  is  too  rounding,  forming  what  is  known  as 
a  "  sickle  hock,"  it  is  prone  to  unsoundness,  especially 
curb,  and  is  not  so  strong  as  a  hock  that  is  properly  set. 
The  hock  may  also  be  set  too  straight. 

Cannon  Bones,  Fetlocks,  Pasterns,  and  Feet  of  the 
Hind  Legs.  —  The  cannon  bones  of  the  hind  legs  should 
have  clean,  strong  tendons.  The  fetlock  joints  should  be 
strong  and  free  from  puffiness.  Special  care  should  be  given 
to  examining  the  setting  and  length  of  the  pasterns  which 
should  be  moderately  long  and  slope  at  an  angle  of  45°. 
The  size  and  quahty  of  the  hind  feet  should  be  noticed  for 
the  same  points  that  have  already  been  discussed  in  the 
treatment  of  the  front  feet. 


SCORE   CARD 


221 


SCORE    CARD    FOR   JUDGING  DRAFT  HORSES 


Scale  of  Points 

Possible 
Score 

Points  I 

Student's 
Score 

)EF1CIENT 

Corrected 

Age 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  29  POINTS 

Height,  estimated hands ;    actual 

Weight,  over  1500  lb.  estimated lb.,  score 

according  to  age 

6 

4 

6 

10 

3 

I 
I 
I 

I 

I 
1 

2 

I 
2 
2 

2 

I 

3 

8 

2 

2 
2 
2 

I 

2 
2 
^ 
2 
2 

2 
8 

2 

I 
2 

6 

Form,  broad,  massive,  evenly  proportioned,  symmet- 

Quality,  refined;   bones  clean,  large,  strong;  tendons 
clean,    defined,    prominent;    skin    and    hair    fine; 

Action,   walk,   fast,   elastic,   regular,  straight;     trot. 

Temperament,  energetic  ;    disposition  good 

HEAD  AND  NECK  —  8  POINTS 

Head,   proportionate  size,  clean  cut,   well   carried; 
profile  straight 

Forehead,  broad,  full 

Ears,  medium  size,  well  carried,  alert 

Muzzle,  neat ;   nostrils  large,  flexible  ;  lips  thin,  even. 

Lower  Jaw,  angles  wide,  space  clean 

Neck,   muscled,    arched ;    throatlatch    fine,   windpipe 
large 

FORE  QUARTERS— 22  POINTS 

Shoulders,    moderately   sloping,   smooth,   snug,   ex- 
tending well  back 

Arm,  short,  strong  muscled,  thrown  back,  well  set.  .  .  . 

Forearm,  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily  muscled 

Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean 

Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  clean,  defined, 
prominent 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  sound  ;   horn  dense,  waxy  ;  soles 
concave;   bars    strong,    full;  frogs    large,    elastic; 
heels  wide,  one  half  length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 

BODY  —  9  POINTS 

Chest,  deep,  wide  ;   breastbone  low  ;  girth  large 

Ribs,  deep,  well  sprung,  closely  ribbed  to  hip 

Loins,  short,  wide,  thick  muscled 

Underline,  low,  flanks  full 

HINDQUARTERS— 32  POINTS 

Hips,  broad,  smooth,  level,  well  muscled 

Croup,  wide,  heavily  muscled,  not  markedly  drooping 

Stifles,  large,  strong,  muscular,  clean 

Gaskins    flower  thighs),  long,  wide,  clean,  heavily 

Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  well  set 

Cannons,  short,  wide,  clean;  tendons  clean,  defined. 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns,  moderately  sloping,  strong,  clean 

Feet,  large,  even  size,  sound;     horn   dense,   waxy; 
soles  concave  ;  bars  strong,  full ;  frogs  large,  elastic  ; 
heels  wide,  one  half  length  of  toe,  vertical  to  ground 

Total 

100 

222  JUDGING   HORSES 

JUDGING  LIGHT   HORSES 

In  the  light  horse,  long  and  slender  bones  and  muscles 
are  found.  The  levers  and  angles  in  the  conformation  of 
the  light  horse  are  all  so  arranged  as  to  give  the  maximum 
speed,  which  is  attained  only  at  the  loss  of  strength.  The 
light  horse  is  rangier  and  less  compact  in  conformation  than 
the  draft  horse.  It  is  more  refined  as  to  quality,  having 
finer  and  cleaner  bones,  and  more  clearly  defined  tendons. 

Weight.  —  The  weights  of  light  horses  range  from  looo 
pounds  or  less  in  the  case  of  light  roadsters  to  1500 
pounds  in  the  case  of  the  heavy  harness  or  coach  horse. 

Height.  —  There  is  also  great  variation  in  the  height  of 
light  horses,  but  horses  less  than  14  hands  high  are  con- 
sidered as  ponies. 

Form.  —  In  form,  the  light  horse  should  be  s>Tnmetrical 
and  stylish ;  and  instead  of  the  blockiness  of  the  draft 
horse,  ranginess  should  be  sought. 

Quality.  —  The  quality  of  the  light  horse  is  easily  studied 
because  there  is  less  flesh  upon  it  than  upon  the  heavy  horse. 
When  the  hand  is  placed  upon  the  animal,  the  coat  should 
feel  soft  and  silky,  and  the  skin  fine.  When  rubbing  down 
over  the  cannon  bones,  one  should  feel  no  superfluous  meat 
beneath  the  skin,  which  should  appear  to  fit  the  limbs  of 
the  horse  much  as  a  glove  fits  the  hand. 

Action.  —  Attention  to  action  is  more  important  in  judg- 
ing light  horses  than  in  judging  draft  animals.  The  trot 
is,  in  this  case,  more  important  ihan  the  walk,  and  in  the 
roadster  types  speed  is  sought  as  well.  The  walk  should 
be  fast,  elastic,  and  straight,  and  the  stride  should  be  long. 
In  the  trot,  great  freedom  of  motion  and."  snappiness  "  are 
required.     In  action,  the  body  should  not  be  raised  too  high 


LIGHT  HORSES  223 

from  the  ground,  deviations  from  a  straight  Hne  forward 
being  objectionable. 

Temperament.  —  In  temperament,  the  Hght  horse  should 
be  active  and  alert  with  no  tendency  toward  sluggishness,  as 
is  occasionally  the  case  with  the  draft  horse. 

Head  and  Neck.  —  The  head  of  the  light  horse  is  pro- 
portionately smaller  and  more  refined  than  that  of  the  draft 
horse.  The  ears  are  smaller  and  more  active  and  alert, 
and  the  eye  generally  shows  signs  of  more  life.  The  fore- 
head should  be  broad  and  full,  and  the  muzzle  large,  with 
large  nostrils  for  furnishing  sufficient  air.  The  neck  does 
not  require  the  extreme  muscularity  seen  in  the  draft 
horse,  and  is  longer  and  more  slender. 

Shoulders.  —  The  shoulders  should  be  slight,  sloping 
gently,  and  carried  back  well  at  the  top  with  high  withers. 
Height  at  the  withers  is  essential  in  a  horse  built  for  speed, 
as  it  gives  a  better  carriage  to  the  head,  and  enables  the  ani- 
mal to  lift  its  front  feet  higher  from  the  ground,  thus  lending 
style  to  action. 

Arm,  Forearm,  and  Knees.  —  The  arm  should  be  well 
muscled  and  long,  throwing  the  elbow  joint  well  back. 
The  forearm  should  be  strong  and  long  from  the  elbow  joint 
to  the  knee.  The  knees  should  be  flat  and  broad,  without 
coarseness  or  extra  flesh.  A  common  tendency  to  be 
slightly  "  buck  kneed  "  or  weak  kneed  should  be  guarded 
against. 

Cannon  Bones  and  Fetlocks.  —  The  cannon  bones  should 
be  short  in  comparison  with  the  length  of  the  forearm. 
They  should  be  well  supported  with  strong  tendons,  and  free 
from  all  roughness  or  tendency  toward  splints.  The  fet- 
lock joints  should  be  strong  and  free  from  puffiness,  which 
is  very  objectionable  but  quite  common  in  hght  horses. 


2  24  JUDGING  HORSES 

Pasterns.  —  Long  and  gently  sloping  pasterns,  which  are 
conducive  to  rapid,  springy,  and  enduring  action,  are  es- 
sential in  hght  horses. 

Feet.  —  For  work  upon  hard  roads  the  feet  should  be  of 
the  best  material.  Large  size  is  also  very  essential.  Small, 
contracted,  flaky  hoofs  are  undesirable. 

Body.  —  The  body  of  the  horse  should  show  the  points 
that  indicate  stamina  and  endurance  without  too  much 
tendency  toward  fleshiness.  The  chest  should  be  roomy, 
giving  capacity  for  the  vital  organs.  Since  thickness  is 
undesirable,  depth  should  be  sought  in  this  region.  Deep, 
well-sprung  ribs  furnish  capacity  for  food.  The  back  should 
be  broad,  providing  place  for  attachment  of  muscles,  but 
great  breadth  may  give  the  animal  a  "  drafty  "  appear- 
ance, which  is  undesirable.  The  loin  should  be  wide,  thick, 
and  short  from  the  last  rib  to  the  hip.  The  flanks  should 
be  well  let  down  and  full,  making  the  underline  straight. 
A  horse  too  high  in  the  flank  will  be  hard  to  keep  and  will 
have  poor  endurance. 

Hindquarters.  —  The  hindquarters  should  be  studied 
very  carefully,  because  upon  the  shape  of  these  depends 
the  speed  ability  of  the  horse.  The  hips  should  be  level 
and  wide  without  losing  sight  of  the  type  of  the  animals. 
The  croup  should  be  well  muscled,  long,  wide,  and  level, 
carrying  out  the  symmetry  of  the  horse.  The  long,  level 
croup  is  found  on  the  speedy  horse.  The  thighs  should  be 
deep,  strong,  and  muscular,  without  the  plumpness  found  in 
the  draft  horse.  The  angle  form.ed  by  the  junction  of  the 
thigh  bone  and  the  hip  bone  should  be  large  and  open  so 
that  greater  freedom  for  articulation  may  be  obtained. 
The  quarters  should  be  well  muscled  and  deep  without  the 
fleshiness  found  in  the  same  region  in  the  draft  horse.     The 


CARRIAGE   AND   SADDLE   HORSES  225 

stifle  should  be  well  muscled,  clean  and  large,  insuring  a 
strong  joint ;  and  the  gaskins  or  lower  thighs  should  be  well 
muscled  and  long.  The  hock  of  the  light  horse  is  as  im- 
portant as  that  of  the  draft  horse ;  and  if  not  sufificiently 
strong  and  well  set  is  very  prone  to  bog  spavin,  bone  spavin, 
or  curbs.  Unsoundnesses  show  more  on  the  light  horse  than 
they  do  on  the  draft  animal.  Since  many  of  the  light  horses 
are  used  for  fancy  driving  purposes,  it  is  of  great  importance 
that  the  hocks  should  be  well  set,  strong,  and  free  from 
puffiness. 

The  rear  cannon  bones  should  be  short,  wide,  strong,  and 
clean,  with  clearly  defined,  hard,  prominent  tendons.  The 
hind  pasterns  should  be  long  and  slope  gently. 

All  that  has  been  said  concerning  the  front  feet  applies 
with  equal  force  to  the  hind  feet. 

JUDGING    CARRIAGE    HORSES,    ROADSTERS,    AND 
SADDLE  HORSES 

The  carriage  horse  is  one  that  can  pull  a  fair-sized  load 
with  some  speed.  Such  horses  should  weigh  1250  to  1450 
pounds,  and  have  round,  well-muscled  bodies  and  strong, 
hard,  flat,  muscular  limbs.  The  pasterns  of  carriage  horses 
should  be  strong  and  sufficiently  long  to  give  the  animal 
a  springy,  stylish  action.  These  horses  should  also  possess 
all  the  marks  of  endurance,  such  as  a  deep  round  chest; 
strong  wide  back ;  short  couple ;  depth  at  the  flank ;  clear 
bright  eyes  ;  and  large  muzzles. 

The  roadster  is  designed  for  speed.  This  type  has  been 
developed  by  selecting  and  mating  the  speediest  horses 
without  regard  to  conformation,  so  the  type  evolved  is  the 
result  of  selecting  those  that  made  the  best  records.  The 
roadster  weighs  about  1000  pounds,  and  has  speedy  action, 

T.   AND   L.    ANIMAL  HUSB. 1 5 


226  JUDGING  HORSES 

without  regard  to  style.  The  roadster  and  trotting  horses 
are  extreme  types  of  Hght  horses,  and  while  endurance  is 
the  main  consideration,  the  horse  should  be  free  from  all 
fleshiness.  The  limbs  should  be  flat,  long,  and  strong,  the 
pasterns  gently  sloping  and  long,  and  the  feet  large  and 
of  good  quality.  The  body  should  be  rangy  and  closely 
ribbed  up  to  the  hip.  The  animal  should  be  refined,  the 
hair  fine  and  silky,  the  skin  thin  and  of  fine  quaUty,  and  the 
veins  prominent. 

The  Saddle  Horse.  —  The  American  saddle  horse  is  a 
distinct  type.  The  saddle  horse  is  stylish,  and  strong,  with 
an  easy,  springy  gait.  In  judging  the  saddle  horse  par- 
ticular attention  should  be  paid  to  his  gaits,  and  the  readi- 
ness with  which  he  performs.  The  gaits  of  the  saddle  horse 
are :  (i)  walk,  (2)  trot,  (3)  rack,  (4)  canter,  (5)  slow  pace, 
(6)  running  walk,  (7)  fox  trot. 

Gaits.  —  The  three  natural  gaits  of  the  horse  are  the  walk, 
the  trot,  and  the  gallop.  Occasionally  there  are  natural 
pacers,  but  they  are  not  common.  In  the  walk,  the  hind 
foot  on  one  side  is  brought  forward  and  is  placed  upon  the 
ground  near  the  spot  where  the  front  foot  of  the  same  side 
was  placed  and  almost  immediately  after  it  had  left  the 
ground.  The  trot  is  an  angular  gait,  the  front  foot  of  one 
side  and  the  hind  foot  of  the  opposite  side  being  carried 
forward  at  the  same  time.  In  the  pace  the  front  foot 
and  the  hind  foot  on  one  side  are  carried  forward  at  the 
same  time.  This  gives  the  horse  a  swaying  motion.  In 
the  single-foot  or  rack  each  foot  touches  the  ground 
at  a  different  time.  It  may  be  called  a  "  slow  gait," 
but  is  somewhat  faster  than  the  walk,  and  is  one  which 
the  horse  can  keep  up  for  a  great  length  of  time.  The 
canter  is  a   slow   gallop,  a  very  easy   riding  gait,  easily 


PONIES 


227 


Combination  harness  and  saddle  horse. 


taught  to  the  horse.  The  running  walk  is  faster  than 
the  walk,  but  slower  than  the  pace  or  trot,  and  an 
easier  riding  gait  than  either.  The  slow  pace  is  a  some- 
what similar  gait,  but  is  more  like  the  pace  than  the 
running  walk.  The  fox  trot  is  a  sort  of  jog  trot,  and  is 
not  so  desirable  as  the  slow  pace  and  the  rack.  If  a  horse 
has  five  of  the  above  gaits  he  is  a  gaited  saddle  horse  ;  and 
the  breeding,  conformation,  and  style  of  the  horse,  together 
with  the  manner  in  which  he  performs  these  gaits,  determine 
his  value. 


JUDGING  PONIES 

All  the  rules  for  judging  horses  apply  to  the  judging  of 
ponies,  which  are  in  reality  small  horses.  In  this  country 
ponies  are  kept  mainly  for  pleasure  purposes.     Americans 


2  28 


JUDGING  HORSES 


SCORE    CARD    FOR    JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 


Possible 
Score 

Points  Deficient 

Scale  of  Points 

Student's 
Score 

Corrected 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  —  30  POINTS 

2 
5 

5 

15 
3 

2 

I 

2 

I 

I 
I 

2 

3 

2 
2 

2 

I 

3 

6 

I 
2 
2 
2 

2 

I 

2 
2 

3 

2 
2 

7 

2 

I 
3 

4 

Height,  estimated  in  hands 

Form,  type  —  symmetrical,  smooth,  stylish 

Quality,  refined ;   bone  clean,  fine,  tendons  clean,  de- 

Action,' walk    long,' fast,   elastic,   regular,   straight; 

HEAD  AND  NECK  —  10  POINTS 

Head,  proportionate,  well  carried,  features  well  de- 

Forehead   broad   full 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large,  same  color 

Ears,  medium  size,  pointed,  well  carried,  alert 

Muzzle,  neat,  nostrils  large,  flexible ;   lips  thin,  firm. 

Neck,  muscled,  arched ;' throatlatch  fine;  windpipe 

lii  rgp 

FOREQUARTERS  —  20  POINTS 

Shoulder,  long,  sloping,  smooth,  extending  well  back 
Arm,  short,  strong  muscled,  thrown  back,  well  set.  .  .  . 
Forearm  long   wide  clean  muscled 

Knees,  straight,  wide,  deep,  strong,  clean,  strongly 

Cannons,   short,   clean,   wide,   tendons  large,   hard, 
clean  prominent 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong,  clean 

Pasterns  lengthy  sloping   strong   clean 

Feet,  medium  size,  even,  sound;   horn  dense,  waxy; 
soles  concave;   bars  strong,  full;  frogs  large,  elas- 
tic ■   heels  wide    one  half  length  of  toe 

BODY  —  10  POINTS 

W^ithers    high   extending  well  back 

Ribs   deep   well  sprung 

Loins,  short,  wide,  thick  muscled,  close  coupled 

Underline  low  flanks  full   well  let  down 

HINDQUARTERS  —  30  POINTS 
Hips    smooth    wide    level 

Croup  long   wide   muscular  not  drooping 

Tail    attached  high    well  carried 

Thighs  deep  broad  strong  muscular 

Stifles  strong  muscular  clean 

Hocks,  large,  strong,  wide,  deep,  clean,  well  set 

Cannons,  short,  clean,  wide;    tendons  large,  hard, 

Fetlocks   wide  straight  strong  clean 

Feet,  medium  size,  even,  sound;    horn  dense,  waxy; 
soles  concave  ;   bars  strong,  full ;  frogs  large,  elas- 
tic ;   heels,  wide '.  .  . 

Total 

100 

MULES   AND   BREEDING   CLASSES  229 

desire  more  style  and  action  in  the  small  ponies  than  is 
required  in  the  countries  to  which  the  ponies  are  native. 
Cleanness  of  bone,  freedom  from  all  unsoundnesses,  sym- 
metry of  body,  and  all  the  other  essentials  of  a  good  horse 
should  be  found  in  ponies. 

JUDGING  MULES 

The  mule  is  produced  for  work  in  warm  climates  and 
should  be  judged  as  a  work  animal.  The  mule  type,  how- 
ever, is  different  from  that  of  the  work  horse.  Height  is 
one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  determining  the  value 
of  a  mule,  size  being  very  important.  Quality  is  also  given 
great  consideration,  mules  of  good  quality  selling  better 
than  rough  ones.  The  same  relationship  of  parts  that  ob- 
tains in  the  case  of  horses  should  be  found  in  mules.  The 
feet  of  the  mule  are  long  and  narrow  like  those  of  the  ass, 
and  should  be  of  as  good  quahty  as  horses'  feet. 

JUDGING  BREEDING  CLASSES 

In  judging  breeding  classes,  the  judge  should  first  be 
famihar  with  the  type  sought  for  by  the  best  breeders. 
This  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  the  breed  and  breed  re- 
quirements. Even  though  one  animal  may  be  better  fitted 
for  market  and  may  be  more  useful  than  another,  it  is  not 
eligible  for  highest  rank  in  the  show  ring  if  it  lacks  the  type 
set  forth  in  the  standard  established  by  the  breed  association. 

Unsoundness  and  poor  conformation  should  be  looked  for 
with  great  care,  because,  while  unsoundnesses  are  not  in- 
herited directly,  the  predisposition  toward  them  is  inherited. 
Blemishes  that  would  lower  the  market  price  of  the  animal 
are  not  so  serious  in  breeding  classes,  although  they  are 


230  JUDGING  HORSES 

objectionable.  Breed  types  should  be  given  precedence 
over  blemishes  in  the  selection  of  breeding  animals.  Ani- 
mals that  are  so  defective  as  to  impair  their  breeding  powers 
should  be  disquaUlied. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  the  first  thing  to  be  sought  in  judging  heavy 
draft  horses?     Driving  horses? 

2.  What  unsoundness  disqualifies  for  either  class  of  horses? 

3.  How  does  the  show  ring  judge  go  about  to  "throw  out" 
the  poorest  animals?     To  "place"  the  rest? 

4.  Describe  how  you  would  "show"  the  action  of  a  horse. 
How  would  you  judge  it? 

5.  Name  and  describe  the  various  kinds  of  defective  action. 

HOME  PROJECT 

Select  the  best  colt  or  horse  on  the  home  farm  and  fit  it  for 
show.     Show  the  animal  yourself  in  the  judging  ring. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT    OF   HORSES 

Stables.  —  The  horse  barn  should  be  roomy,  well  lighted, 
and  ventilated,  and  should  be  kept  free  from  chickens  or 
other  animals  that  may  introduce  parasites  to  infest  the 
horse.  The  stable  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  at  least 
twice  daily,  morning  and  evening,  and  fresh  bedding  pro- 
vided at  the  evening  cleaning. 

Grooming.  —  Horses  should  be  thoroughly  groomed 
every  morning.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  especial  care 
should  be  given  to  this  work.  During  the  winter  they 
grow  heavy  coats  of  hair.  When  put  into  the  work  har- 
ness in  spring  their  profuse  sweating  loosens  the  hair. 
If  this  loose  hair  is  not  removed  by  currying,  it  will  make 
the  horse  both  uncomfortable  and  unsightly.  Their 
shoulders  and  necks  should  be  carefully  watched.  It  is 
a  good  practice  to  wash  them  after  each  day's  work.  For 
harness  galls,  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of 
cure.  The  best  cure  for  sore  shoulders  and  necks  is  rest 
and  removal  of  the  cause.  In  the  spring  it  is  well  to  clip 
the  hair  from  the  fetlocks,  so  that  the  animal's  legs  can 
be  more  easily  kept  clean. 

Food  Requirements  of  the  Work  Horse.  —  A  work  horse 
more  nearly  resembles  a  machine  than  any  other  animal 
kept  on  the  farm.  The  hard-worked  horse  needs  energy- 
giving  and  tissue-building  material  in  its  feed  to  supply 

231 


232  CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT  OF   HORSES 

power  and  to  repair  the  great  waste  that  goes  on  during 
a  siege  of  hard  work.  The  horse  may  start  in  the  spring 
fat  and  sleek,  and  before  the  heavy  fall  work  is  completed, 
the  cellular  structure  of  the  body  may  have  been  torn 
down  and  rebuilt  many  times.  This  calls  for  protein  in 
the  ration ;  and  the  energy  that  must  be  supplied  necessi- 
tates carbohydrate  and  fat  material. 

A  good  grain  mixture  for  the  horse  consists  of  3  parts 
of  oats,  2  parts  of  corn,  and  i  part  of  bran  by  weight.  In 
feeding  horses,  a  safe  rule  to  follow  is  to  allow  one  pound 
of  grain  daily  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight  of  the 
animal,  and  to  increase  this  amount  if  the  horse  is  hard 
at  work.  The  horse  at  extra  hard  work  will  require  about 
50  per  cent  mere  grain  than  is  called  for  by  the  above  rule. 
Draft  horses  weighing  1600  pounds  will  therefore  require 
8  pounds  of  grain  three  times  daily  when  at  hard  work. 

Roughage.  —  A  horse  will  consume  daily  about  i  pound 
of  roughage  for  each  100  pounds  of  live  weight.  Tim- 
othy hay  is  the  roughage  most  commonly  fed.  Clover  hay 
of  good  quality,  bright,  and  free  from  dust,  may  be  fed 
safely.  Mixed  hay  consisting  of  blue  grass  and  timothy, 
or  other  grasses,  is  excellent.  Alfalfa  hay  is  fed  almost 
entirely  in  western  sections,  and  horses  work  well  on  it  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  it  makes  them  sweat  freely  and 
causes  a  larger  secretion  of  urine.  If  corn  silage  is  fed,  it 
must  be  of  good  quaUty,  free  from  mold,  and  must  be  fed  in 
moderate  amounts. 

Precaution.  —  When  the  work  horse  gets  a  day  or  two 
of  rest,  the  ration  should  be  decreased.  During  a  resting 
time  the  horse  accustomed  to  hard  work  will,  if  allowed 
to  do  so,  eat  more  feed  than  can  be  utilized  by  the  body. 
A  great  many  cases  of  a  disease  known  as  ''  Azoturia," 


FEEDING  233 

sometimes  called  "  Monday  morning  disease,"  result  from 
feeding  horses  heavily  when  they  are  idle  over  Sunday  and 
are  given  no  exercise.  Farm  horses  should  be  turned  on  to 
a  short  pasture  when  not  at  work.  This  gives  the  animal 
an  opportunity  to  roll,  get  a  bite  of  grass,  and  sufficient 
exercise  to  prevent  disorders  due  to  overfeeding.  The 
animal  will  not  need  the  noon  feed,  and  in  the  evening  a 
lighter  feed  than  usual  may  be  given.  If  horses  are  not 
used  to  it,  too  much  grass  may  produce  colic. 

In  case  horses  cannot  be  turned  out,  a  good  plan  is  to 
give  the  regular  grain  feed  at  breakfast  time  and  cut  the 
noon  and  evening  meals  in  half.  The  old  custom  of  feed- 
ing a  bran  mash  on  idle  days  has  been  quite  generally 
abandoned.  A  small  allowance  of  bran  in  the  daily  ra- 
tion is  nutritious,  and  its  mild  laxative  effect  will  keep 
the  animal's  digestive  tract  in  good  condition.  Horses 
should  not  be  fed  or  watered  when  very  hot.  It  is  often 
fatal  to  the  animal ;  or  founder  and  stiffness  may  result, 
from  the  effects  of  which  horses  seldom  recover. 

The  Brood  Mare.  —  The  brood  mare  should  be  treated 
with  more  consideration  than  the  work  horse.  It  is  better 
to  work  the  brood  mare  than  to  deprive  her  of  the  oppor- 
tunity to  get  sufhcient  exercise.  She  should  not  be  allowed 
to  "  rough  it  "  in  winter.  It  is  not  necessary  to  keep  her 
in  a  warm  stable  if  she  is  given  sufficient  wholesome, 
nourishing  food,  but  good  colts  should  not  be  expected 
from  dams  forced  to  go  through  the  winter  on  hay  and 
straw  alone.  The  dam  must  be  fed  tissue-building  ma- 
terials. A  good  grain  mixture  consists  of  3  parts  of 
oats  and  i  part  of  bran.  Good  timothy  or  mixed  hay 
is  satisfactory  for  roughage,  and  some  cut  hay  may  be 
introduced  into  the  grain  ration. 


234  CARE  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF  HORSES 

Working  the  Brood  Mare.  —  If  the  brood  mare  is  needed 
as  a  work  horse,  she  should  be  given  some  Hght  work. 
Such  service  as  fast  driving  on  the  road  or  plowing  in  a 
four-horse  team  should  not  be  expected  from  her.  The 
brood  mare  should  at  all  times  be  handled  quietly,  care- 
fully, and  kindly. 

Feeds  for  the  Young  Foal.  —  Grain  should  be  supplied 
in  a  separate  box  to  the  young  foal  as  soon  as  it  has  learned 
to  eat  grain  from  its  mother's  feed  box.  Oats  is  the  best 
grain  for  the  young  colt,  and  this  should  be  fed  in  small 
amounts  at  first.  A  safe  rule  to  follow  in  supplying  grain 
to  the  foal  is  to  allow  from  2  to  3  pounds  of  grain  daily 
up  to  the  age  of  one  year;  4  to  5  pounds  daily  between 
the  ages  of  one  and  two  years ;  and  7  to  8  pounds  of  grain 
daily  between  the  age  of  two  and  three  years.  The  same 
amount  of  roughage  may  be  allowed  the  young  horse, 
though  these  allowances  are  subject  to  wide  variation. 

The  young  horse  should  be  liberally  fed  so  as  to  acquire 
one  half  its  mature  weight  at  the  age  of  twelve  months. 
Only  during  the  growing  period  can  the  animal  be  properly 
developed,  so  that  it  may  later  attain  its  greatest  possible 
size.  At  this  time  feeds  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter 
should  be  given  to  develop  muscles  and  bones.  After 
being  weaned  the  foal  should  be  fed  liberally  on  such  feeds 
as  oats,  bran,  and  linseed  oil  meal.  Cut  alfalfa  hay,  cow- 
peas,  soy  beans,  and  skim  milk  may  also  be  introduced 
into  the  ration  at  this  time  to  good  advantage. 

Orphan  Foals.  —  Orphan  foals  are  often  reared  upon 
modified  cow's  milk.  Cow's  milk  is  higher  in  fat  and 
lower  in  sugar  and  mineral  matter  than  mare's  milk,  and 
when  fed  to  the  young  foal  limewater  and  sugar  should 
be  added.     At  all  times  the  milk  should  be  fed  warm,  and 


EXERCISES  235 

strict  attention  should  be  given  to  cleanliness  and  sanitary 
conditions  in  preparing  food  for  the  young  foal. 

Colic  in  Horses.  —  Colic  causes  more  deaths  among 
horses  than  any  other  single  complaint.  It  is  of  two 
kinds,  spasmodic  or  cramp  colic,  and  flatulent  or  wind 
colic.  Spasmodic  colic  is  the  more  violent  and  comes 
on  more  rapidly.  Injudicious  feeding,  standing  in  drafts 
of  air,  and  drinking  too  much  cold  water  are  some  of 
the  causes  of  spasmodic  colic.  The  horse  tramps  in  the 
stall,  paws,  bends  the  knees,  turns  the  head  around  to 
the  side,  has  a  worried  look,  hes  down  and  rolls,  and 
shows  other  signs  of  distress.  The  pain  comes  periodi- 
cally; the  horse  for  a  few  minutes  seems  well,  then  the 
symptoms  of  the  trouble  suddenly  reappear.  Flatulent  or 
wind  colic  comes  on  more  slowly,  and  is  caused  by  fer- 
mentation of  food  in  the  large  intestine.  Proper  feeding 
and  care  will  prevent  most  of  the  attacks  of  colic. 

In  all  cases  of  colic  it  is  much  better  to  call  a  reUable 
veterinarian  than  to  resort  to  home  treatment. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Does  fast  driving  have  any  effect  upon  the  amount  of 
feed  required  by  horses  ?     If  so,  what  ? 

2.  What  special  attention  does  the  farm  work  horse  require 
in  spring  ? 

3.  Why  do  horses  need  more  concentrated  feeds  than  cattle? 
Can  a  work  horse  be  kept  in  condition  on  rough  feed?     Why? 

4.  Describe  a  good  method  by  which  a  young  foal  may  be 
raised  by  hand. 

HOME   PROJECT 

Take  entire  care  of  the  farm  work  horses  or  the  driving  team 
for  any  given  period,  using  the  best  of  methods  in  this  work. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT    OF   BEEF   CATTLE 

The  Cattle  to  Keep  for  Beef.  —  The  cattle  to  keep  for 
beef  should  be  of  the  beef  t}'pe.  Such  animals  produce 
the  greatest  amount  of  high-priced  meat  from  a  given 
amount  of  food. 

Care  of  the  Cow  and  Calf.  —  In  rearing  calves  for  beef 
purposes  on  high-priced  land,  there  are  several  methods 
that  may  be  followed.  One  practice  is  to  milk  the  cow 
and  raise  the  calf  upon  skim  milk  and  grain.  This  method 
is  the  cheapest.  The  calf  will  eat  a  grain  ration  after  it 
is  weaned  and  will  do  well,  with  very  little  shrinkage.  This 
method  presupposes,  however,  that  the  cows  are  good 
milkers.  It  is  not  advisable  to  follow  it  with  calves  from 
the  dairy  breeds. 

Rearing  Two  Calves  with  One  Cow.  —  Another  practice 
is  to  place  two  calves  with  one  cow  and  milk  the  extra 
cows,  or  buy  calves  to  place  with  them.  The  two  calves 
do  well,  but  at  weaning  time  they  shrink  more  than  calves 
reared  on  skim  milk  and  grain.  When  two  are  reared  by 
one  cow,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  with  the 
cow  in  the  pasture,  but  should  be  turned  with  her 
night  and  morning.  The  calves  should  be  watched  while 
feeding ;  otherwise  the  stronger  one  will  rob  the  weaker. 
In  addition  to  the  milk  from  the  cow,  the  calves  should 
have  a  Uberal  feeding  of  grain.     They  should  be  started 

236 


FEEDING   FOR  BEEF   PRODUCTION  237 

upon  the  grain  ration  while  quite  young,  because  they 
will  have  to  be  weaned  at  the  early  age  of  four  or  five 
months. 

If  single  calves  are  allowed  to  run  with  the  cows,  it  re- 
duces the  labor  bill  to  the  minimum,  but  is  advisable 
only  upon  very  cheap  land,  or  in  the  production  of  high- 
priced  breeding  stock.  Such  calves  should  be  weaned  at 
the  age  of  five  or  six  months.  In  exceptional  cases,  when 
calves  are  being  fitted  for  show,  they  may  be  allowed  to 
nurse  until  they  are  fifteen  or  eighteen  months  of  age. 
Any  of  the  above  methods  will  produce  good  beef  cattle, 
provided  the  animals  have  the  proper  breeding. 

Care  of  the  Beef  Sire.  —  On  the  farm  where  cattle  are 
kept  for  the  production  of  beef,  the  sire  should  receive 
just  as  good  care  as  on  the  dairy  farm.  He  should  have 
a  pen  with  a  paddock  in  connection  where  he  may  exercise. 
While  he  should  receive  sufficient  feed  to  keep  him  in  good 
condition,  he  should  not  be  kept  fat.  Alfalfa  or  clover  hay 
with  a  limited  amount  of  silage  of  good  quality  for  rough- 
age, and  a  grain  ration  made  up  of  corn,  oats,  and  bran,  if 
not  fed  in  excess,  will  keep  him  in  a  healthy  condition. 

''  Baby  Beef  "  Production.  —  The  production  of  "  baby 
beef  "  requires  great  care  and  intelligent  feeding.  The 
industry  has  arisen  because  of  the  scarcity  of  feeding 
cattle,  due  to  the  high  price  of  western  land  upon  which 
feeders  are  now  produced. 

In  this  method,  the  beef  producer  feeds  the  calves 
liberally  from  the  time  they  are  born  until  they  are  mar- 
keted. "  The  calf  is  not  allowed  to  lose  its  calf  fat." 
These  animals  are  sold  at  from  12  to  18  months  of  age. 
They  should  weigh  from  800  to  1000  pounds  each,  and 
they  should  be  fat,  and  smooth,  and  of  good  quality. 


238  CARE   OF  BEEF   CATTLE 

The  advantages  of  ''  baby  beef  "  production  are : 

1.  The  cattle  are  not  kept  so  long  on  the  farm.  This 
makes  it  possible  to  maintain  a  large  breeding  herd  to 
produce  more  calves. 

2.  Capital  is  turned  over  faster. 

3.  The  percentage  of  weight  given  by  the  dam  is 
greater. 

4.  The  market  favors  the  lighter  animal  that  will  pro- 
duce smaller  cuts  of  meat. 

5.  The  young  animal  gains  more  economically  than  the 
older  one. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  method  are : 

1.  Young  animals  require  greater  care  and  more  skill  in 
feeding. 

2.  The  animals  must  be  well  finished  when  sent  to  the 
market,  or  they  will  be  turned  back  again  to  the  country 
as  "  feeders,"  for  which  a  lower  price  is  paid. 

3.  The  animals  must  be  very  uniform  in  conformation 
and  quality  to  command  a  good  price. 

4.  To  fatten  them  requires  a  long  feeding  period,  be- 
cause young  animals  have  a  tendency  to  grow^  instead  of 
fatten. 

In  the  summer  time  it  is  poor  practice  to  allow  the 
calves  to  eat  too  heavily  of  grass,  because  grass  has  a 
tendency  to  produce  scours.  The  grain  ration  may  con- 
sist of  corn.  With  this  some  bran  should  be  fed,  and 
toward  the  end  of  the  feeding  period  some  cottonseed 
meal  added.  If  possible  either  alfalfa  or  clover  hay  should 
be  given  for  roughage.  Timothy  hay  is  undesirable, 
although,  if  nothing  better  can  be  furnished,  mixed  hay 
will  prove  quite  satisfactory.  Corn  silage  helps  to  cheapen 
the  gains  and  keeps  the  animals  in  good  condition. 


FEEDING  BEEF  CATTLE  239 

Feeding  Older  Cattle. — A  common  practice  is  to  buy 
cattle  at  about  the  age  of  two  years  and  feed  them 
until  they  are  fat  enough  for  the  market.  These  cattle 
may  be  fed  from  60  to  90  days,  known  as  ^'  the  short 
feeding  period,"  or  from  120  to  180  days,  called  "  the 
long  feeding  period."  Cattle  that  have  been  fed  for  the 
short  feeding  period  are  called  '^  short  fed  cattle,"  and 
those  fed  the  long  period  are  called  ''  long  fed  cattle." 

Starting  Cattle  on  Feed.  —  Cattle  should  be  started  on 
feed  gradually.  Only  a  small  allowance  of  concentrated 
feed  should  be  given.  The  coarser  and  cheaper  the  feed 
stuffs  given  at  the  beginning,  the  easier  it  is  to  get  the 
cattle  up  to  "  full  feed." 

Full  Feed.  —  Cattle  are  on  ''  full  feed  "  when  they  are 
consuming  the  maximum  allowance  of  heavy  concentrated 
feeds  such  as  corn  and  cottonseed  meal.  It  takes  from 
two  to  four  weeks  to  get  cattle  on  full  feed,  depending 
upon  the  kind  and  condition  of  the  cattle.  Young  cattle 
go  on  to  full  feed  somewhat  more  slowly  than  older  cattle, 
and  the  feeder  should  be  more  cautious  with  young  cattle 
because  they  get  "  off  their  feed  "  more  easily.  Cattle 
in  good  flesh  and  used  to  feeding  will  go  on  to  full  feed 
more  quickly  than  will  thin  cattle  unused  to  being  fed. 

The  Feeds  for  Beef  Cattle.  —  For  feeding  beef  cattle, 
corn  should  form  the  principal  part  of  the  fattening  ration. 
When  on  full  feed,  the  steer  will  consume  from  12  to  15 
pounds  of  shelled  corn  per  1000  pounds  of  live  weight 
daily.  In  connection  with  corn  the  steer  should  get 
from  2I  to  3  pounds  of  cottonseed  meal  or  linseed  meal. 
The  general  rule  for  the  feeding  of  cottonseed  meal  is  to 
give  3  pounds  daily  per  1000  pounds  of  live  weight.  The 
animals  should  be  watched  carefully  to  see  that  they  do 


240  CARE   OF  BEEF   CATTLE 

not  overeat  on  the  meal.  The  amount  of  the  meal  should 
be  decreased  after  the  steers  have  been  fed  for  a  period  of 
about  TOO  days,  and  in  some  cases  it  may  be  taken  out  of 
the  ration  entirely.  For  roughage,  well-cured  clover  hay 
is  excellent.  Where  it  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable 
figure  alfalfa  is  probably  the  best  roughage  for  fattening 
cattle.  However,  care  should  be  exercised  in  feeding  it, 
or  bloat  may  result.  This  is  especially  true  when  the 
alfalfa  is  damp  or  wet.  Timothy  hay  is  an  expensive 
roughage.  Besides  being  high  in  price  it  does  not  produce 
the  gains  that  are  obtained  from  the  alfalfa  or  clover. 
Corn  silage  should  be  fed  to  beef  cattle  because  it  reduces 
the  amount  of  grain  needed  and  keeps  the  animals  healthy. 
Steers  will  consume  about  15  to  20  pounds  of  silage  and 
from  6  to  8  pounds  of  alfalfa  or  clover,  daily,  per  1000 
pounds  of  live  weight.  As  steers  grow  fat,  the  amount  of 
roughage  may  be  lowered  and  the  amount  of  grain  in- 
creased. A  suitable  day's  ration  for  the  1000-pound  steer 
consists  of  12  to  15  pounds  of  shelled  corn,  2  to  3  pounds 
of  cottonseed  meal,  6  to  8  pounds  of  alfalfa  or  clover  hay, 
and  15  to  20  pounds  of  corn  silage.  Steers  should  average 
from  2^  to  3  pounds  of  gain  per  day  on  such  a  ration. 

Hogs  Following  Steers.  —  The  steer  feeder  always  has 
hogs  following  the  steers  to  pick  up  the  waste  corn.  The 
best  way  to  feed  corn  to  steers  is  on  the  ear,  with  hogs 
following.  A  great  many  steer  feeders  are  content  if  the 
steers  pay  only  for  the  cost  of  feeding.  They  make  the 
profit  on  the  hogs  which  follow  the  cattle  in  the  feed  lot. 
Active,  vigorous  pigs  weighing  from  100  to  150  pounds 
are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  However,  the  pigs  should 
have  some  feed  besides  what  they  pick  up  after  the  cattle. 
The  number  of  pigs  per  steer  varies  with  the  condition  of 


EQUIPMENT   FOR   FEEDING  241 

the  cattle  and  the  way  the  feed  is  prepared.  If  whole 
corn  is  fed,  one  pig  per  steer  is  about  the  right  proportion. 
Equipment.  —  Feeding  beef  cattle  does  not  require  ex- 
pensive equipment.  All  tests  show  that  steers  do  best 
under  conditions  where  they  have  plenty  of  freedom.  The 
fattening  steer  is  protected  by  a  heavy  coat  of  hair,  and 
when  he  becomes  fat,  the  layer  of  fat  is  of  itself  a  protec- 


Fig.  89.  —  Typical  heavy  load  of  fat  steers. 

tion  against  cold.  He  is  also  evolving  a  great  deal  of 
heat  in  building  up  tissue  and  taking  care  of  his  food. 
The  experience  of  feeders  is  that  the  steers  do  better  in 
steady,  cold  weather  than  in  warm,  soft,  muggy,  or  change- 
able weather. 

Barns  or  Open  Sheds.  —  Barns  are  handier  for  feeding, 
but  an  open  shed,  well  bedded  and  dry,  with  a  south  and 
east  exposure,  gives  the  best  satisfaction.  Some  feeders 
prefer  to  provide  the  cattle  only  with  windbreaks.  This 
is  good  practice  in  the  southern  part  of  the  corn  belt,  but 
on  its  northern  edge  the  cattle  are  better  off  if  provided 

T.    AND    L.    ANIMAL   HUSB.  — l5 


242  CARE   OF   BEEF   CATTLE 

with  cover  to  protect  them  from  snows  and  cold  rains. 
These  sheds  need  not  be  expensive.  The  cheapness  of 
equipment  is  one  of  the  arguments  in  favor  of  steer 
feeding. 

Self-feeders  or  Open  Feed  Troughs.  —  Cattle  may  be 
fed  from  open  feed  bunks  or  troughs,  or  they  may  have 
their  feed  given  to  them  in  self-feeders.  In  the  self-feeder, 
the  feed  is  put  into  a  large  hopper  from  which  it  works 
down  as  the  cattle  eat  it  out  below.  The  self-feeder  saves 
considerable  labor,  and  if  the  farmer  must  employ  help 
incapable  of  feeding  wisely,  the  self-feeder  may  obviate 
trouble  which  might  arise  from  overfeeding.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  good  cattle  feeder  will  get  better  results 
if  the  feeding  is  supervised,  as  must  be  the  case  when 
open  feed  troughs  are  used. 

Water.  —  Fattening  cattle  require  considerable  water, 
which  must  be  fresh,  clean,  and  pure.  The  supply  should 
be  easily  accessible  so  that  the  cattle  may  drink  at  will. 
In  cold  weather  the  chill  should  be  taken  from  the  water 
by  the  use  of  a  tank  heater,  but  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  heat  the  water  enough  to  make  it  unpalatable. 

Advantages  of  Steer  Feeding.  —  The  general  advantages 
of  steer  feeding  are : 

1.  It  saves  labor. 

2.  It  uses  the  roughage  of  the  farm. 

3.  It  returns  a  large  amount  of  fertility  to  the  land. 

4.  It  makes  a  good  return  on  grain  and  feed. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  are  Holstein  cows  frequently  found  in  a  beef  herd? 

2.  Can  baby  beef  be  produced  as  economically  on  the  same 
farm  as  that  from  three-year-old  steers?     Discuss. 


EXERCISES  243 

3.  Which  will  do  better  on  a  wide  ration,  a  fattening  steer 
or  a  dairy  cow?     Why? 

4.  Why  do  beef  cattle  do  better  in  open  sheds  than  in  warm 
barns  ? 

HOME   PROJECT 

Feed  a  lot  of  steers  until  finished  for  market.     Keep  accurate 
records  of  cost,  rations,  returns,  and  profits. 


CHAPTER  XV 
CARE    AND    MANAGEMENT    OF    DAIRY    CATTLE 

The  Cattle  to  Keep  for  the  Dairy.  —  The  dairy  breeds  of 
cattle  have  been  improved  by  the  selection  of  breeding  stock 
from  the  best  producing  famihes.  The  farmer  who  engages 
in  the  milk  producing  business  will  save  time  by  buying 
representative  cows  of  dairy  breeds,  or  cows  that  give  evi- 
dences of  dairy  breeding.  A  good  pure-bred  sire  of  one  of 
the  dairy  breeds  should  be  selected  to  head  this  herd.  In 
improving  the  herd,  records  obtained  by  weighing  and 
testing  the  milk  of  the  individual  cows  of  the  herd  should  be 
studied  for  the  purpose  of  eliminating  the  poor  cows. 

The  Advantages  of  Dairying.  —  As  already  stated,  the 
dairy  cow  is  the  most  economical  producer  of  human  food 
from  the  coarse  materials  raised  upon  the  farm.  For  ex- 
ample, the  cow,  Missouri  Chief  Josephine,  in  a  period 
of  twelvemonths  gave  26,861.0  pounds  of  milk,  containing 
740.5  pounds  of  fat.  The  total  solids  in  her  milk  weighed 
3330  pounds,  consisting  of  740.5  pounds  of  fat,  815  pounds 
of  protein  material,  1579  pounds  of  milk  sugar,  and  195 
pounds  of  ash  material.  All  of  this  was  human  food.  A 
steer  weighing  1250  pounds  was  found  to  contain  in  its  body 
548  pounds  of  dry  matter,  which  included  not  only  the  edible 
portions  but  also  a  great  deal  of  bone  and  other  refuse.  Of 
the  dry  matter  in  the  body  of  the  steer  ^^2>  pounds  was  fat, 
172  pounds  was  protein,  and  43  pounds  was  ash  material. 

244 


DAIRY  EQUIPMENT  245 

The  cow  in  one  year's  time  produced  over  six  times  as  much 
dry  matter  as  was  found  in  the  carcass  of  the  steer,  over 
twice  as  much  fat,  and  almost  five  times  as  much  ash.  She 
also  produced  over  three  fourths  of  a  ton  of  nutritious  milk 
sugar.  In  addition  she  produced  a  calf,  and  was  as  valuable 
at  the  end  of  the  year  as  at  the  beginning.  To  get  the  food 
material  from  the  steer  he  had  to  be  fed  more  than  two 
years  before  being  slaughtered. 

Dairying  is  the  most  intensive  form  of  animal  husbandry 
that  can  be  practiced  on  high-priced  land.  The  price  of 
manufactured  dairy  products  is  always  higher  than  meat 
products.  There  is  less  waste  in  handhng  them,  they  stand 
transportation  over  long  distances,  and  are  easily  kept  over 
long  periods  of  time. 

Equipment.  —  Successful  dairying  depends  in  a  large  de- 
gree upon  the  care  and  management  of  the  cows  in  the  herd. 
The  farm  of  the  practical  dairyman  should  be  well  equipped 
with  good  dairy  buildings.  Roomy,  well-lighted,  well-ven- 
tilated barns  that  are  warm  in  the  winter  and  cool  in  the 
summer  are  a  necessity.  Windows  should  be  provided  with 
shades  or  otherwise  equipped  so  that  they  may  be  dark- 
ened in  the  summer  during  fly  time. 

Barns  should  be  whitewashed  on  the  inside  at  least  twice 
annually,  and  if  possible  the  ceiling  of  the  stable  should  be 
covered  so  that  no  beams  are  exposed  where  dirt  and  disease 
germs  can  find  lodgment.  The  stables  should  be  kept 
clean,  and  if  it  is  not  possible  to  drive  through  the  barn  to 
clean  it,  a  litter  carrier  should  be  provided.  Whether  the 
cows  should  stand  facing  each  other  or  not  is  a  matter  of 
opinion.  The  feeding  operation  is  simplified  when  they  face 
each  other,  and  if  more  time  and  labor  are  devoted  to  feeding 
than  to  cleaning  the  barn  it  is  more  economical.     If  a  litter 


246  CARE   OF  DAIRY   CATTLE 

carrier  is  used,  it  should  have  direct  communication  with  a 
covered  pit  so  built  as  to  save  the  manure. 

Care  of  the  Cow.  —  The  cow  is  the  unit  of  the  herd,  and 
the  success  of  the  whole  depends  upon  the  care  of  each  unit. 
During  all  operations  in  the  handling  of  dairy  cows  clean- 
liness should  prevail.  The  cows  should  be  brushed  daily. 
Their  udders  should  be  wiped  with  a  damp  cloth 
previous  to  milking.  It  is  also  good  practice  to  use  milk 
pails  with  small  tops,  so  that  the  amount  of  dust  and  dirt 
faUing  into  the  pail  will  be  reduced  to  the  minimum.  Milk- 
ers should  practice  "  dry  hand  "  milking,  and  should  change 
from  their  dirty  field  clothes  to  clean  outer  garments  before 
beginning  to  milk.  All  these  precautions  not  only  tend  to 
keep  the  milk  clean,  but  also  help  the  dair\Tnan  to  improve 
conditions  generally. 

The  cow  should  be  well  cared  for  at  all  times,  fed  liberally, 
and  should  receive  utmost  kindness  from  the  hands  of  the 
herdsman.  All  unnecessary  excitement,  fright,  and  injury 
should  be  carefully  avoided.  In  commercial  dairying  it  is 
well  to  separate  the  calf  from  the  cow  two  or  three  days 
after  birth  so  that  she  will  not  become  attached  to  it. 
However,  if  one  is  raising  valuable  pure-bred  calves,  they 
may  be  allowed  to  remain  for  a  week  or  more  if  desired. 

If  the  cow  is  a  heavy  milker  she  should  be  watched 
for  milk  fever.  The  farm  should  be  provided  with  an 
outfit  for  the  treatment  of  this  malady.  The  most  effec- 
tive method  is  that  of  simply  inflating  the  udder  with  air. 

In  the  case  of  young  cows,  the  first  milking  period  deter- 
mines the  future  persistency  of  the  cow.  The  heifer  should 
be  milked  by  a  competent  milker,  and  should  be  kept  in 
milk  as  long  as  possible.  This  will  tend  to  lengthen  her 
future  lactation  periods. 


FEEDING   FOR  MILK   PRODUCTION  247 

Feeding  the  Dairy  Cow.  —  It  must  be  remembered  that 
the  dairy  cow  uses  a  part  of  her  ration  for  maintenance. 
Only  that  portion  of  the  food  which  she  receives  in  excess  of 
that  needed  for  maintenance  can  be  used  for  the  production 
of  milk,  the  nourishing  of  the  calf,  or  the  laying  on  of  fat. 
Nature,  however,  in  providing  for  the  young  animal,  made 
the  milking  function  so  strong  in  the  cow  that  she  will  rob 
her  own  system  in  order  to  provide  for  her  young. 

Maintenance  and  Production  Requirements.  —  Main- 
tenance requirements  are  not  heavy.  The  most  food  is 
required  to  supply  the  heat  of  the  body.  Heat  may  be 
furnished  by  roughages.  In  the  feeding  of  dairy  cows,  the 
roughage  part  of  the  ration,  therefore,  should  be  considered 
as  the  part  that  the  animal  is  using  for  her  own  maintenance. 

The  production  of  milk  should  be  regarded  as  hard  work, 
and  the  dairy  cow  should  be  fed  accordingly.  All  cows  do 
not  respond  equally  well  to  feeding,  because  some  cows  have 
greater  milk-producing  possibilities  than  others.  Good 
cows  should  be  fed  liberally  because  they  make  good  use 
of  their  food,  and  require  no  more  for  maintenance  than 
poor  cows  require.  Good  cows  eat  more  than  poor  cows  do, 
but  they  return  much  larger  results.  For  milk  production, 
concentrates  are  usually  fed. 

How  the  Ration  of  the  Cow  Should  Vary.  —  There  are 
many  factors  affecting  the  ration,  the  more  important  ones 
being  the  weight  of  the  cow,  the  amount  of  milk  the  cow 
produces,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  period  of  lactation, 
the  quarters  in  which  the  cow  is  kept,  and  the  physical 
condition  and  peculiarities  of  the  animal. 

The  roughage  allowance  for  a  1000  pound  dairy  cow  is 
generally  about  t^o  pounds  of  silage,  and  from  6  to  10  pounds 
of  good  mixed  clover  or  alfalfa  hay.     Timothy  hay  is  not 


248  CARE   OF   DAIRY   CATTLE 

a  good  feed  for  a  milk  cow.  In  addition  to  this  roughage 
allowance,  the  cow  should  receive  one  pound  of  good  grain 
mixture  per  day  for  each  pound  of  butter  fat  produced 
weekly.  The  grain  mixture  should  be  made  up  of  at  least 
three  different  grains  or  concentrated  feeds.  It  is  well  to 
grind  feeds  for  dairy  cows. 

According  to  weight  the  ration  should  be  made  to  vary 
directly,  heavy  cows  requiring  more  feed  than  light  ones. 

In  the  summer  time  the  cows  will  do  well  on  pasture  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  season,  but  as  soon  as  fly  time  comes 
on  and  the  pasture  gets  dry,  the  cows  should  be  kept  in  the 
barn  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  at  least,  and  be  fed  fresh-cut 
green  crops  or  ''  summer  silage,"  which  is  simply  silage  kept 
over  until  the  summer  time.  If  the  cow  is  an  exceptionally 
good  one  it  pays  to  feed  her  about  one  half  of  her  regular 
grain  ration  while  on  pasture. 

Water  and  Salt.  —  Dairy  cows  should  at  all  times  have 
free  access  to  salt  and  water.  Barns  are  now  built  equipped 
with  drinking  cups  and  salt  licks  for  each  cow.  During  the 
period  of  lactation,  a  cow  will  drink  much  more  water  than 
during  the  period  in  which  she  is  not  in  milk. 

Tuberculosis  in  Cattle.  —  Tuberculosis  is  one  of  the 
worst  diseases  with  which  the  farmer  has  to  contend. 
It  thrives  best  where  animals  are  kept  in  confinement  and 
under  unnatural  conditions.  On  the  open  range  very  little 
of  it  is  known.  Cattle  kept  in  well-ventilated  barns  are  not 
as  liable  to  contract  the  disease  as  those  housed  in  filthy 
and  poorly  ventilated  stables.  Hence  this  disease  is  more 
dreaded  by  dairymen  than  by  the  producers  of  beef  cattle. 
It  also  attacks  hogs  and  chickens,  but  is  most  destructive 
in  cattle,  and  is  but  little  prevalent  in  horses  and  sheep. 

Tuberculosis  is  caused  by  the  tubercle  bacillus.     It  may 


TUBERCULOSIS  249 

appear  in  two  forms,  the  acute  and  the  chronic.  An  animal 
attacked  by  the  acute  form  shows  rapid  decHne  and  dies 
in  a  few  months.  In  the  chronic  form  the  diseased  animal 
may  Hve  for  years  and  yet  show  no  outward  signs.  It  is  the 
insidious  nature  of  the  disease  that  makes  it  so  dangerous. 

The  disease  is  spread  by  inhahng  or  swallowing  the  germs 
which  are  given  off  from  the  body  of  affected  animals. 
The  disease  may  also  be  contracted  from  the  milk  of  dis- 
eased animals,  especially  if  the  udder  is  affected.  Human 
beings,  especially  young  children,  may  contract  the  disease 
from  the  milk  of  tubercular  cows ;  and  pigs  may  contract  it 
in  like  manner,  or  by  consuming  waste  around  infected 
regions,  and  eating  offal  and  carcasses  of  tubercular  cattle. 

Incipient  tuberculosis  in  animals  has  no  outward  symp- 
toms, though  in  the  advanced  stages  of  the  disease  there  is  a 
general  appearance  of  unthrift,  such  as  a  staring  coat,  a  Hst- 
less  eye,  a  hanging  head,  drooping  ears,  lack  of  ambition, 
loss  of  appetite,  a  hacking  cough,  and  general  emaciation, 
even  though  the  animal  be  well  fed  and  cared  for.  There  are 
many  other  diseases  that  have  the  same  general  symptoms, 
but  there  is  an  infallible  test  for  tuberculosis  known  as  the 
tuberculin  test.  If  the  animal  responds  to  this  test  it  should 
be  killed,  as  there  is  no  absolute  cure. 

Prevention.  —  In  order  to  keep  the  disease  out  of  a  herd 
there  are  certain  rules  that  should  be  followed.  All  new 
animals  brought  into  the  herd  should  be  tested  before  being 
placed  with  the  herd.  Animals  reacting  to  the  tuberculin 
test  should  be  eliminated  from  the  herd.  Well- ventilated 
and  well-lighted  stables  should  be  provided  and  kept  well 
disinfected  with  some  good  disinfecting  solution. 

The  tuberculin  test  should  not  be  applied  to  a  herd  except 
by  a  skilled  veterinarian  or  other  competent  person. 


250  CARE   OF   DAIRY   CATTLE 

Millc  Fever.  —  Milk  fever  affects  the  best  cared  for  and 
apparently  the  healthiest  cows  in  the  herd.  It  usually 
appears  in  the  early  period  of  lactation.  The  cow  falls  to 
the  ground,  holding  her  head  around  to  one  side.  Her 
throat  seems  paralyzed,  and  she  cannot  swallow.  The  dis- 
ease is  caused  by  an  excess  of  nutrition  in  the  udder,  brought 
on  by  overfeeding  and  lack  of  exercise.  The  cow  should  be 
given  neither  food  nor  medicine. 

The  treatment  consists  of  inflating  the  udder  with  air, 
either  by  using  a  regular  milk  fever  outfit,  with  which  every 
farm  should  be  equipped,  or  by  inserting  a  sterilized  milking 
tube  into  the  udder  and  pumping  in  air  with  a  sterilized 
bicycle  pump.  After  the  udder  is  inflated  tape  may  be 
wound  around  the  teats  if  necessary  to  keep  the  air  from 
escaping.  If  the  air  is  absorbed  in  four  or  five  hours  and 
relief  has  not  come  to  the  cow,  the  inflation  should  be 
repeated.  Usually  the  cow  recovers  quickly  after  the  first 
treatment. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  special  precautions  need  be  taken  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  dairy  cow? 

2.  How  do  the  cow  and  the  steer  compare  in  the  ability  to 
convert  grain  and  hay  into  human  food  ?  Give  figures  to  prove 
your  answer. 

3.  Why  is  cleanliness  of  such  great  importance  in  the  manage- 
ment of  the  dairy  herd? 

4.  Which  needs  the  narrower  ration,  the  heavy  or  the  light 
milker?     Why? 

HOME   PROJECT 

Raise  a  calf  from  birth  to  six  months  of  age  by  the  most 
approved  methods    keeping  accurate  records. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
CARE   AND    MANAGEMENT   OF   SHEEP 

Economy  of  Sheep.  —  Sheep  usually  yield  as  good  re- 
turns as  any  other  class  of  live  stock.  The  expenditure  for 
buildings  and  the  capital  required  to  become  estabhshed 
in  the  business  are  small,  the  gains  made  by  sheep  are 
economical,  and  mutton  is  constantly  growing  in  popu- 
larity. Besides  the  mutton  produced,  the  sheep  also 
yields  a  crop  of  wool  which  is  often  sufhcient  to  pay  for  the 
cost  of  maintaining  the  breeding  animal  throughout  the 
year.  Sheep  are  great  weed  eradicators.  They  will  rid  a 
farm  of  weeds  if  allowed  to  graze  over  badly  infested  fields, 
leaving  valuable  manure  to  enrich  the  soil.  If  allowed  to 
remain  in  the  pasture  at  night,  they  seek  the  highest  ground. 
In  this  way  fertility  is  left  on  the  uplands,  where  it  does 
the  most  good. 

In  parts  of  England,  the  farming  industry  has  actually 
been  established  and  made  permanent  by  the  use  of  sheep, 
and  lands  that  at  one  time  were  practically  worthless  for 
producing  good  crops  are  now  returning  handsome  profits. 
So  profitable  are  a  few  sheep  on  many  farms  where  they  are 
fed  that  the  animal  has  justly  been  termed  "  the  golden 
hoof." 

Sheep  Feeding.  —  Sheep  feeding  is  a  popular  industry. 
The  breeding  flock  is  kept  cheaply  on  the  range,  where 
lambs  are  produced  in  large  numbers.     When  they  reach 

251 


2  52  CARE   OF   SHEEP 

about  60  pounds  in  weight  they  are  shipped  to  some  of 
the  large  central  markets  and  sold  to  feeders  who  fatten 
and  return  them  to  the  market.  There  is  often  good  profit 
in  this  feeding  business,  and  a  great  deal  of  fertihty  is 
added  to  farms  where  this  system  is  followed. 

Another  branch  of  the  industry  is  the  production    of 
lambs  commonly  known    as    "  hot-house    lambs."       The 


Fig.  90.  —  Lambs  of  the  average  mutton  type. 

majority  of  the  lambs  are  sold  in  the  fall,  weighing  from  75 
to  100  pounds,  and  young  lambs  placed  upon  the  market  in 
the  winter  and  early  spring  readily  command  a  high  price. 
Dorset  sheep  produce  lambs  any  time  of  the  year  and  are 
therefore  valuable  for  winter  lamb  production.  The  winter 
lamb  should  be  kept  in  good  quarters  and  should  receive 
careful  attention.  To  bring  the  best  price  the  lambs 
should  be  well  fattened  and  weigh  from  50  to  60  pounds 
when  ready  for  market. 

Conditions  of  the  Large  Producer.  —  Where  sheep  are 
produced  in  large  numbers  on  the  ranges,  pasture  forms 
the  larger  part  of  their  feed.  The  cost  of  production  is 
low,  because  of  the  cheapness  of  the  land  and  the  small 


HANDLING  AND   STABLING  253 

amount  of  labor  required.  The  sheep  are  handled  in  large 
flocks  and  are  generally  cared  for  by  herders,  who  move  the 
flocks  with  the  pasture,  going  into  the  highlands  in  the 
summer  and  to  the  valleys  or  lowlands  for  the  winter.  As 
the  weather  becomes  warm  in  the  spring  the  movement 
begins,  and  by  following  near  the  snow  line,  fresh  and 
nutritious  grasses  are  obtained.  However,  the  open  range 
is  rapidly  disappearing,  and  the  cost  of  rearing  sheep  in  the 
west  is  continually  advancing.  This  condition  will  even- 
tually force  the  raising  of  more  sheep  in  other  parts  of  the 
country. 

The  Shepherd.  — Not  every  one  can  make  a  success 
of  sheep  husbandry.  The  profits  from  this  industry  depend 
in  a  great  measure  upon  the  man  engaged  in  the  work. 
The  successful  sheep  man  generally  has  well-defined  qual- 
ities without  which  the  handling  of  sheep  would  be  un- 
profitable. No  domesticated  animal  appreciates  gentle- 
ness more  than  the  sheep,  and  if  the  industry  is  to  return 
profits  the  shepherd  must  be  gentle  and  kind  in  the  handling 
of  his  animals. 

Stabling  for  Sheep.  —  Quarters  for  sheep  should  be  dry, 
clean,  well  ventilated,  and  not  too  warm.  These  animals 
are  protected  from  inclement  weather  by  heavy  fleeces, 
and  can  withstand  a  great  deal  of  cold,  but  let  them  become 
wet  and  serious  troubles  at  once  begin.  Sheep  barns 
should  be  placed  upon  high,  dry  ground  so  that  drainage 
away  from  the  building  is  assured.  The  quarters  should  be 
kept  well  bedded  with  clean  straw.  Pure  air  should  be 
provided  at  all  times,  but  great  care  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  drafts.  Sheep  contract  colds  easily,  and  large  losses 
often  occur  from  pneumonia  when  over-zealous  amateurs  try 
to  provide  sheep  with  fresh  air  by  leaving  barn  doors  open. 


254 


CARE   OF   SHEEP 


Feeding  Racks.  —  Feed  troughs  and  other  receptacles 
used  for  feed  should  be  kept  clean.  A  six-inch  board  placed 
about  a  foot  above  the  center  of  the  trough  will  give  the 
sheep  a  chance  to  eat,  but  will  prevent  them  from  getting 
their  feet  into  the  trough. 

Preparation  of  Feeds.  —  As  a  general  rule  ordinary  feed 
stuffs  do  not  require  much  preparation  for  sheep.  Such 
grains  as  peas  and  beans  are  best  fed  ground,  especially 

to  young  lambs  and 
old  sheep  with  poor 
teeth.  For  these  ani- 
mals corn  should  be 
cracked .  B  arley  may 
be  improved  by  soak- 
ing, and  roots  should 
be  sliced  or  pulped  be- 
fore  feeding.  For 
healthy  sheep  whose  teeth  are  sound,  there  need  be  little 
preparation  of  feed.  To  get  the  best  results  feeding  must 
be  done  regularly. 

Water  and  Salt.  —  It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  clean,  pure, 
fresh  water  accessible  to  the  sheep  at  all  times.  They  will 
drink  more  water  with  dry  feed  than  when  green  or  suc- 
culent feeds  are  provided,  and  more  will  be  drunk  in  sum- 
mer than  in  winter.  Salt  should  be  kept  constantly  be- 
fore them. 

Exercise.  —  Sheep  should  have  plenty  of  exercise.  In 
cold  climates  it  is  often  difficult  to  provide  this.  They 
should  be  turned  out  in  the  open  every  fine  day,  but  not 
exposed  to  raw  winter  winds,  snowstorms,  and  rains.  The 
thrifty  shepherd  never  allows  his  sheep  to  remain  out  in 
heavv  rainstorms,  even  in  the  summer  time. 


Fig.  91.  — Trough  used  in  feeding  grain  to  sheep. 


FEEDS   AND    FEEDING  255 

Succulent  and  Rough  Feeds.  —  Sheep  should  be  given 
some  succulent  feed.  In  the  winter,  this  is  best  provided 
in  the  form  of  moderate  amounts  of  corn  silage  or  roots. 
Two  pounds  of  rutabagas  daily  per  animal  is  sufficient. 
If  frozen  materials  are  fed,  serious  sickness  or  even 
death  may  follow.  Moldy  silage  may  also  lead  to  the 
same  results.  For  roughage,  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  cannot 
be  surpassed.  Cowpeas,  or  common  held  peas  are  also 
good ;  and  for  fattening  sheep,  pea- vine  silage  is  especially 
valuable. 

Concentrated  Feeds  for  the  Breeding  Flock.  —  For  the 
breeding  flock,  the  best  concentrated  feeds  are  bran  and 
oats,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  3  parts  of  oats  to  2  parts 
of  bran.  This  ration,  fed  about  one  half  pound  daily 
with  alfalfa  or  clover  hay,  will  keep  the  flock  in  good  con- 
dition. No  grain  need  be  fed  until  the  spring  season  ap- 
proaches. Extra  feed  and  care  at  this  time  is  well  paid 
for  in  increased  returns,  and  grain  given  to  the  ewes  and 
to  the  lambs  is  generally  economical. 

Early  Feeding.  —  If  the  dam  is  well  fed,  the  lamb  de- 
rives the  benefit.  By  the  time  the  lambs  are  a  month  old 
they  have  learned  to  eat  grain  from  their  mother's  feed 
trough.  At  this  time  it  is  well  to  provide  a  ''  creep," 
separating  the  pen  of  the  mother  from  another  pen  provided 
with  a  trough  for  the  lambs.  In  this  way  the  lambs  can  be 
fed  alone.  For  growth,  a  good  mixture  to  be  fed  all  through 
the  summer  in  small  amounts  consists  of  i  part  wheat  bran, 
2  parts  oats,  2  parts  corn  meal,  and  i  part  oil  meal.  At 
about  the  age  of  five  months  the  lambs  should  be  taken  away 
to  a  fresh  pasture  out  of  sight  and  hearing  of  their  dams. 

Feeding  for  Fattening.  —  If  lambs  are  to  be  fattened 
they  may  be  fed  a  half  pound  daily  ration  made  up  of 


256 


CARE   OF   SHEEP 


cracked  corn,  peas,  and  wheat  bran.  The  grain  may  be 
gradually  increased  up  to  one  pound  daily.  When  the  time 
comes  to  yard  them,  they  should  be  fed  either  alfalfa  or 
clover  hay  for  dry  roughage,  some  succulent  feed  such  as 
corn  silage  or  roots,  of  which  rutabagas  are  best,  and  a 
grain  mixture  of  shelled  corn  or  corn  meal,  and  a  small 
amount  of  linseed  meal  or  cottonseed  meal.     Linseed  cake 


Fig.  92.  —  Docking  a  lamb. 

and  cottonseed  cake  broken  into  nut  size  gives  better  satis- 
faction with  the  lambs  than  if  fed  in  the  finely  ground  form. 
The  grain  ration  may  gradually  be  increased  up  to  two 
pounds  daily  when  the  lambs  are  about  ready  for  market. 

Docking  and  Trimming.  —  Lambs  should  be  docked  at 
about  the  age  of  two  weeks.  Docking  is  the  removal  of 
the  tail.  This  insures  cleanliness,  and  docked  lambs  sell 
better,  to  say  nothing  of  their  added  comfort  and  better 
gains. 

The  outside  of  a  sheep's  hoof  grows  faster  than  it  wears 
off  unless  the  sheep  are  kept  on  very  rough  ground.     If  not 


DIPPING  SHEEP 


257 


trimmed,  this  outside  shell  turns  under  the  hoof,  collects 
dirt  and  filth  and  in  time  may  lead  to  foot  rot.  The  feet 
should  be  trimmed  at  least  twice  each  year. 


10 
^  Tank'i^r  Sloping  Fldor 


Fig-  93-  —  Cross  section  of  dipping  tank  and  pens. 

Sheep  Ticks.  —  The  sheep  tick,  a  wingless  fly,  is  about 
one  fourth  of  an  inch  long  and  of  reddish-brown  color. 
The  adult  tick  lays  the  eggs,  which  adhere  to  the  wool 
fibers.  These  hatch  in  about  four 
weeks.  All  sheep  are  more  or  less 
affected,  but  the  long-wool  breeds 
seem  to  harbor  more  ticks  than  the 
other  classes  of  sheep.  At  time  of 
shearing  the  ticks  move  to  the 
lambs  for  protection. 

Sheep  ticks  cause  the  animals 
great  annoyance.  They  suck  the 
blood,  dry  up  the  wool,  produce 
irritation,  and  cause  emaciation. 
Every  sheep  owner  should  dip  his  Fig.  94.  -  a  handy  lift  gate  for  1 
sheep  annually,  about  a  week  or  dipping  tank, 

ten  days  after  shearing  time,  in  one  of  the  standard  sheep- 
dipping  solutions. 


T.    AND   L.  ANIMAL   HUSB. 


17 


2!;  8  CARE  OF  SHEEP 


EXERCISES 


1.  Can  mutton  sheep  be  produced  on  pasture  alone?     Give 
reasons  for  your  answer. 

2.  Why  do  sheep  protected  by  a  heavy  fleece  need  stabling? 

3.  At  what  age  should  the  lambs  be  separated  from  their 
dams  to  be  fed  alone  ? 

4.  Which  need  the  greater  amount  of  protein  in  the  ration, 
lambs  or  pigs  ?     Why  ? 

5.  Why  is  exercise  of  so  much  importance  in  the  management 
of  all  live  stock  ? 

HOME   PROJECT 

With  the  consent  of  your  parents  take  entire  charge  of  the 
care  and  management  of  the  home  flock. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
CARE   AND   MANAGEMENT   OF   SWINE 

While  the  hog  has  an  omnivorous  appetite  and  will  eat 
refuse  of  all  kinds,  its  habits  are  exceedingly  clean.  There 
is  no  other  farm  animal  that  appreciates  more  clean  and 
healthful  quarters,  and  that  responds  better  to  good  care 
and  wise  feeding. 

Quarters.  —  While  quarters  for  hogs  need  not  be  ex- 
pensive, they  should  provide  an  abundance  of  sunHght  and 
fresh  air.  In  cold  climates,  hog  houses  should  be  warmly 
constructed.  The  large  central  house  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  can  be  divided  into  small  pens.  If  possible 
the  doors  of  the  pens  should  open  into  small  lots  or  runways 
to  give  the  animals  an  opportunity  to  get  out  for  exer- 
cise. In  connection  with  the  hog  house  there  should  be  a 
feed  room,  equipped  with  a  stove  or  heater,  where  water 
can  be  heated  and  feeds  warmed  or  cooked. 

The  up-to-date  hog  plant  has  individual  hog  houses,  or 
colony  houses,  as  they  are  sometimes  called.  The  breed- 
ing animals  are  usually  kept  in  these  colony  houses  all 
winter,  where  they  have  the  advantage  of  plenty  of  exer- 
cise and  good  air. 

All  hog  houses  should  be  clean,  well  bedded  with  straw, 
and  the  walls  should  be  whitewashed  and  disinfected  regu- 
larly. Feed  troughs  and  other  feed  receptacles  should  be 
kept  clean. 

259 


26o  CARE  OF  SWINE 

Feeding  the  Brood  Sow.  —  In  connection  with  pasture, 
the  brood  sow  should  receive  daily  from  two  to  four  pounds 
of  a  mixed  grain  ration.  This  should  be  rich  in  protein 
and  mineral  matter,  to  which  should  be  added  some  rough- 
age such  as  alfalfa  or  clover  hay.  These  bulky  feeds  keep 
the  digestive  tract  distended  and  in  good  condition.  Grain 
mixtures  may  be  made  from  corn,  oats,  bran,  peas,  and  soy 
beans.  If  skim  milk  can  be  obtained  it  is  well  to  feed  five 
or  six  pounds  daily. 

Feeding  the  Young  Pigs.  —  At  about  the  age  of  three 
weeks  the  pigs  should  be  provided  with  feed  in  a  small 
trough  of  their  own.  The  feed  may  be  the  same  as  that 
given  to  the  mother.  They  should  have  plenty  of  out- 
door exercise.  Their  quarters  should  be  kept  dry  and 
clean.  The  pigs  should  be  weaned  at  about  the  age  of 
six  weeks. 

By  weaning  time  the  young  pigs  will  have  learned  to 
eat.  A  " creep"  into  a  separate  pen  should  be  provided  so 
that  the  young  ones  may  slip  into  this  pen,  away  from  the 
mother,  and  eat  corn,  slop,  and  skim  milk.  They  should 
be  fed  liberally,  and  if  possible  should  have  the  run  of  a 
grass  pasture  where  there  is  sufficient  shade  and  running 
water.  It  is  poor  practice  to  have  the  small  pigs  feed  with 
larger  ones,  or  young  pigs  with  older  ones.  Not  more 
than  fifty  pigs  of  the  same  size  should  be  herded  together. 

Finishing  the  Lard  Hog.  —  Hogs  are  easily  fattened  if 
Hberally  fed.  In  the  corn  belt  of  North  America,  where 
lard  hogs  are  more  extensively  raised  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  corn  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
diet  of  the  fattening  hog.  The  number  of  pounds  of  pork 
annuall}^  produced  depends  within  reasonable  limits  upon 
the  number  of  bushels  of  corn  raised.     The  states  where 


FEEDS  FOR  FATTENING  261 

corn  grows  best  are  the  states  in  which  most  of  the  pork 
is  produced. 

Wheat  middhngs  fed  in  a  slop  ration  or  tankage  fed  in 
the  same  way  will  be  found  a  valuable  adjunct  to  corn  for 
pork  production.  Cottonseed  meal  should  not  be  fed  to 
hogs.  In  the  later  stages  of  feeding,  linseed  meal  also 
softens  the  fat  and  should  not  be  fed  at  that  time.  Bran 
is  too  bulky  for  hog  feeding. 

Pasture,  Soiling,  and  Preparation  of  Feeds.  —  Pasture 
is  a  help  toward  profitable  hog  fattening.  Dry  lot  fat- 
tening is  often  expensive.  In  the  case  of  fattening  in  dry 
lots  it  is  a  good  thing  to  supply  the  animals  with  some 
succulent  feed  in  the  form  of  soiling  crops,  such  as  peas, 
beans,  clover,  or  alfalfa.  If  grains  like  barley  are  soaked 
at  least  twelve  hours  before  feeding,  better  results  are  ob- 
tained. As  a  rule  little  preparation  of  corn  is  necessary. 
The  best  way  to  feed  corn  is  on  the  cob.  During  cold 
weather  slop  should  be  warmed  for  hogs,  but  no  feeds  ex- 
cept potatoes  or  pumpkins  need  be  cooked  for  them. 

The  Relation  of  Grain  to  Gain.  —  The  general  rule  for 
the  relation  of  feed  to  gain  is  that  one  should  allow  a  bushel 
of  corn  for  every  ten  pounds  of  pork  produced.  During 
the  fattening  period,  the  hogs  should  be  watched,  and 
as  soon  as  they  cease  to  make  gains  they  should  be  sold, 
unless  the  market  is  poor.  The  feeder  should  study  the 
market  and  strive  to  sell  when  prices  are  high.  During 
winter  feeding,  hogs  should  have  warm  quarters,  but  even 
then  more  corn  will  be  required  to  make  a  pound  of  gain 
than  in  summer  feeding. 

Feeding  for  Bacon  Production.  —  In  feeding  for  the  pro- 
duction of  bacon,  less  corn  is  desired.  The  ration  should 
consist  of  feeds   relatively   low  in  carbohydrate  and  fat 


262 


CARE  OF  SWINE 


material,  in  comparison  with  corn ;  such  as  barley,  oats, 
peas,  soy  beans,  shorts,  middhngs,  and  skim  milk.  Sum- 
mer pasture  is  good  to  furnish  green  material  and  give 
time  for  the  development  of  the  animal,  but  too  much  green 
forage  ought  not  be  fed,  as  it  tends  to  produce  a  soft  car- 
cass. Hogs  from  one  of  the  bacon  breeds  should  be  used 
for  the  production  of  bacon. 

Pasture  for  Pigs.  —  During  recent  years  much  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  production  of  pork  on  pasture 
with  a  self-feeder.  This  has  proven  to  be  a  most  economical 
method  of  pork  production.  The  pigs  are  farrowed  late 
enough  in  the  spring  so  that  they  may  be  turned  on  pas- 


Fig-  95-  —  Alfalfa  rack  for  hogs. 


ture  about  weaning  time.  Alfalfa  and  clover  or  common 
blue  grass  are  very  acceptable  permanent  pasture  for  pigs. 
Peas,  oats  and  peas,  rape,  or  other  especially  planted  crop, 
are  often  preferred.  Best  results  are  obtained  from  pigs 
fed  a  small  allowance  of  skim  milk  and  having  free  access 
to  a  self-feeder  stocked  with  corn  or  other  mixed  feeds. 

Hog  Cholera.  —  Hog  cholera  is  one  of  the  worst  dis- 
eases with  which  the  swine  producer  has  to  contend.  It  is 
caused  by  virulent  germs  which  live  for  a  long  time  in  bed- 


HOG  CHOLERA 


263 


ding,  straw  piles,  litter,  rubbish,  and  mud  holes.  These 
are  carried  from  place  to  place  by  streams,  wagons,  birds, 
and  on  the  feet  of  men  and  animals. 

The  disease  appears  in  two  forms,  the  acute,  which  takes 
away  the  victim  in  a  few  hours,  and  the  chronic,  which 
may  last  one  or  more  weeks. 

Affected  pigs  are  usually  dumpish  and  listless,  lying 
around  huddled  together.  Their  appetite  varies,  and 
their  digestion  is  de- 
ranged. The  skin  is 
reddened  and  in- 
flamed around  the 
ears,  nose,  and  eyes, 
along  the  belly,  and 
inside  of  the  thighs. 
Violent  diarrhoea  is 
the  characteristic 
symptom. 

To  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  disease 
in  infected  areas,  all 
hogs  brought  to  the 
farm  should  be  quar- 
antined  for  four 
weeks.  Dogs  and 
other  migratory  animals  should  be  kept  away,  and  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  visit  infested  farms.  Hogs  should 
be  pastured  at  a  distance  from  highways,  railways,  and 
streams.  Troughs  should  be  disinfected  daily  and  pens 
weekly  with  quicklime  or  some  other  good  disinfectant,  and 
all  wallow  holes  should  be  filled.  Litter  should  be  burned, 
and  old  straw  piles  should  not  be  left  standing  where  pigs 


Fig.  96.  —  Kidneys  from  a  cholera  hog.  On  the  sur- 
face of  the  kidney  are  small  blood  spots  which  give 
them  a  turkey-egg  appearance.  The  white  spot  is  a 
blood  vessel. 


264  CARE  OF   SWINE 

may  have  access  to  them.  If  the  disease  is  in  the  vicinity, 
pigs  should  be  vaccinated  against  cholera  by  a  duly  quaU- 
fied  veterinarian. 

If  the  herd  is  attacked,  all  pens  should  be  cleaned  and 
thoroughly  disinfected,  the  serum  treatment  given,  all 
carcasses  and  Utter  burned,  the  hogs  kept  away  from  wal- 
low holes  and  other  unsanitary  places,  and  provided  with 
well-hghted  and  well-ventilated  sleeping  quarters. 

EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  advantages  of  the  colony  hog  houses? 

2.  Why  should  the  brood  sow  with  a  litter  of  pigs  be  given 
feeds  rich  in  protein  and  mineral  matter?  How  should  her 
feed  differ  from  that  of  the  pigs  after  weaning  ? 

3.  What  is  the  essential  difference  between  feeds  for  bacon 
and  for  lard  hogs  ? 

4.  Can  hogs  be  fattened  on  pasture,  rape,  or  any  kind  of 
green  feed?     Give  reasons  for  your  answer. 

5.  Do  bacon  breeds  ever  become  lard  hogs?  If  so,  under 
what  conditions? 

HOME   PROJECT 

Select  and  raise  a  pig  to  sufl&cient  maturity  for  the  market 
under  the  best  conditions  of  feeding,  care,  and  management. 
Keep  an  accurate  record  of  cost  and  returns. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
GENERAL  LIVE   STOCK   IMPROVEMENT 

Heredity  and  Variation.  —  "Like  begets  like."  This 
tendency  is  known  as  heredity,  and  upon  heredity  are  based 
all  the  possibilities  of  live  stock  improvement.  Offspring 
are  the  result  of  all  their  ancestors,  and  while  they  resemble 
their  parents,  they  are  never  exactly  like  their  parents  nor 
exactly  like  each  other.  It  is  upon  variation  that  animal 
improvement  depends.  Offspring  vary  slightly  from  their 
parents  in  certain  marked  characteristics.  The  breeder 
selects  the  animals  that  have  the  quaUties  he  desires  to 
perpetuate,  and  by  mating  them  he  produces  other  ani- 
mals with  characteristics  that  conform  to  his  ideal. 

Selection.  —  Selection  is  of  two  kinds :  natural  selec- 
tion or  nature's  selection  of  animals  best  fitted  to  certain 
natural  conditions,  and  methodical  selection ^  or  that  prac- 
ticed by  the  breeder.  Natural  selection  is  sometimes 
called  the  "  survival  of  the  fittest,"  and  while  the  animal 
may  be  the  fittest  animal  for  nature's  conditions  it  may 
not  be  the  best  animal  under  economic  conditions  set  up 
by  man.  So  the  breeder  selects  his  animals  methodically, 
and  establishes  artificial  conditions  under  which  the  ani- 
mals may  best  thrive. 

Atavism.  —  Atavism  is  reversion  to  the  original  type. 
Oftentimes  animals  are  born  resembling  very  remote  an- 
cestors.    Red  calves  are  frequently  born  to  black  Aber- 

26s 


266  LIVE   STOCK  IMPROVEMENT 

deen  Angus  parents  because  years  ago  there  were  many 
red  Angus  cattle.     This  reversion  is  atavism. 

Mutants  or  Sports.  —  Frequently  animals  are  born  that 
are  direct  deviations  from  their  ancestors  such  as  a  polled 
animal  from  horned  ancestors.  These  animals  are  called 
''  mutants  "  or  '^  sports,"  and  many  breeds  of  animals 
have  been  developed  from  these  "  sports."  A  good  ex- 
ample of  this  is  seen  in  the  case  of  the  Double  Standard 
Polled  Durham  cattle. 

Crossbreeding.  —  Crossbreeding  is  the  mating  of  animals 
of  the  same  species,  but  of  different  breeds.  A  calf  pro- 
duced by  mating  a  pure-bred  Shorthorn  with  a  pure-bred 
Hereford  would  be  known  as  a  Shorthorn-Hereford  cross- 
bred calf.  Introducing  the  blood  of  a  different  breed  for 
only  one  generation  is  known  as  an  "  outcross."  The 
crossing  of  different  breeds  tends  to  break  up  the  charac- 
ters by  which  any  particular  breed  is  known,  and  is 
unsatisfactory  after  the  first  cross. 

Hybrids.  —  The  mating  of  animals  from  two  different 
species  produces  the  hybrid.  The  mule  is  the  commonest 
and  best-known  hybrid  among  farm  animals.  Hybrids 
are  generally  nonbreeders,  but  cases  are  on  record  where 
they  have  reproduced. 

Inbreeding.  —  Inbreeding  is  the  mating  of  closely  re- 
lated animals.  It  is  resorted  to  by  breeders  in  develop- 
ing new  breeds  of  animals,  or  in  the  fixing  of  certain 
characters. 

Line  Breeding.  —  Line  breeding  is  allied  to  inbreeding, 
except  that  the  animals  mated  are  not  so  closely  related. 
It  generally  applies  to  breeding  of  animals  of  the  same 
family  that  are  more  remotely  related  than  in  the  case  of 
inbreeding. 


BREEDING 


267 


The  Pure-bred  Sire.  —  The  use  of  the  "  pure-bred  sire  " 
is  one  of  the  shortest  cuts  to  improving  the  Hve  stock  of 
any  community.  The  value  of  the  pure-bred  sire  in  im- 
proving common  stock  is  well  shown  by  the  following 
tabulation  from  Davenport's  "  Principles  of  Breeding." 

Table  Showing  Appearance  of  Pure  Blood  and  Disappearance  of 
Impure  by  Use  of  Pure-bred  Sire 


This  table  means  that  if  grade  and  pure-bred  animals 
of  the  same  breed  are  mated,  consistent  improvement  is 
made  by  the  infusion  of  pure  blood. 

After  six  generations  there  is  less  than  2  per  cent  of 
impure  blood  in  the  offspring.  This  offspring,  even  though 
possessing  many  of  the  characters  of  the  pure  breed,  is 
not  a  pure-bred  and  cannot  be  registered  in  our  American 
Herd  Books.  There  is  no  possible  way  to  "  grade  up  " 
common  stock  to  become  absolutely  pure  bred. 

Breed  Associations.  —  Every  breed  of  live  stock  has  its 
breed  association  made  up  of  the  men  who  direct  the 
improvement  of  the  breed.  The  association  agrees  upon 
what  the  type  of  the  animal  should  be  and  points  out  the 
deficiencies  for  correction  and  the  good  points  which  the 
breed  possesses.     The  active  associations  offer  prizes  at 


268  LIVE   STOCK  IMPROVEMENT 

the  leading  shows  for  the  best  animals  of  the  breed.  They 
also  lay  down  rules  for  the  registration  of  animals. 

At  some  of  the  principal  shows  and  exhibitions,  money, 
set  aside  by  the  associations,  is  used  for  futurity  prizes. 
Animals  to  compete  for  futurity  prizes  must  be  nominated 
some  time  in  advance  of  the  show.  This  encourages  the 
breeder  to  strive  to  get  the  best  breeding  stock  and  to 
take  the  best  possible  care  of  the  progeny. 

Registers  of  merit  or  advanced  registers  are  instituted 
by  the  dairy  cattle  breed  associations.  The  purpose  of 
these  associations  is  to  encourage  high  production  of  milk 
and  butter  fat  and  to  keep  track  of  the  best  producers,  so 
that  prospective  purchasers  may  select  animals  from  good 
ancestors,  and  breeders  may  breed  more  intelligently  and 
effectively. 

Tests  for  advanced  registration  are  of  two  kinds :  official 
and  semi-official.  The  official  test  lasts  for  seven  days. 
In  this  test  the  tester  visits  the  farm,  sees  that  the  cow  is 
milked  out  dry,  sees  the  milking  before  the  test  begins,  and 
then  stays  on  the  farm  during  the  entire  test,  watches  every 
milking,  weighs  the  milk,  and  makes  a  butter-fat  test. 
The  semi-official  test  covers  one  year,  or  as  long  as  the 
lactation  period  of  the  cow  lasts.  A  representative  of  a 
state  agricultural  college  comes  to  the  farm  once  every 
month,  on  days  unannounced  to  the  owner,  and  remains 
for  two  days.  All  feed  as  well  as  the  milk  is  weighed  and 
recorded.  The  butter-fat  content  of  the  milk  is  also 
found.  The  weighing  of  the  milk  on  the  other  days  of  the 
month,  and  the  two  days'  test  of  the  quality  of  the  milk,  is 
taken  as  the  record  for  the  month. 

The  table  on  the  opposite  page  sets  forth  the  Advanced 
Register  requirements  of  the  different  dairy  breeds. 


ADVANCED  REGISTER  TABLE 


269 


^ 


2 

w 

H 

12 

7.2 

8.8 
10.4 
12.0 

.00439 
Official 

1 

i 

=1 
II 

_       10   CO    O)     0 

C<     ro    t^    0     CO                           -Tj 
O)      OJ      CN      CO     CO                                .2 

1 

"0 

V 

0   0  CO  0   0                c/:3 
0  CO  00   r^  0 

0  0  t^  00   0 

e 

X 

< 

1 

1 

1^ 

ll 

CO  q   q   q 

'jf  vd      CJ>     CN 

M     ro    t^    M                                   '-: 

0<      CN      C^      CO                                            2 

8  8  8  8              1 

0     10    LO    uo 

vO    >0     t--  CO 

1 

1 

u 

1 

250.5 
287.0 

323-5 
360.0 

O.I 

Semi- 
official 

>> 

"!2 

■a  w 

II 

.                             1 

0 

"2 

It 

II 

250.5 
287.0 

323-5 
360.0 

0.1 
Semi- 
official 

^ 

2  yrs. 

3  yrs. 

4  yrs. 

5  ys. 

6  yrs. 
Requirements 

increase    each 
day  by  pounds 
Kind   of    test 
used 

Hi 


0 

0 

fl 

(U 

4J 

4:3 

fi 

B 

4-> 

+J 

is 

OJ 

(U 

0) 

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lU     flj     :3 

-^-^  I 

-►-»  -^  _, 
'7.  'T.  o 


(U     (U     0) 

,£3  ^  ^ 


270 


LIVE  STOCK  IMPROVEMENT 


The  Holstein  Association  admits  to  advanced  registry 
by  ofi&cial  test  on  the  seven-day  record  of  the  cow.  If 
the  cow  quahfies  in  the  seven-day  test,  she  may  be  run 
for  the  year,  and  the  year's  record  will  be  published.  The 
Jersey  Association  admits  cows  to  the  advanced  register 
by  either  official  seven-day  test,  or  by  the  yearly  semi- 
official test.  The  Ayrshire  and  the  Brown  Swiss  Associa- 
tions admit  cows  to  advanced  register  by  the  yearly  semi- 
official test  only,  but  they  may  be  admitted  on  either 
their  milk  or  their  butter-fat  production.  The  Guernsey 
Cattle  Club  admits  cows  to  advanced  registry  by  semi- 
official test  only,  and  on  the  year's  butter-fat  record  only. 

Advanced  registry  systems  have  served  to  stimulate 
competition  among  different  breeds  of  cattle,  and  as  a  re- 
sult some  very  remarkable  records  have  been  made.  Not 
many  years  ago  the  idea  that  a  cow  could  produce  more 
than   1000  pounds  of  butter  in    12   months  seemed  pre- 


4 

^ 

IKJMi 

r 

BH 

m 

^igi^ 

Fig.  97.  —  Guernsey  cow. 


DAIRY  COW  RECORDS 


271 


posterous.  Now  there  are  many  cows  on  record  that 
have  made  over  1000  pounds  of  butter.  Some  of  the 
cows  that  have  made  good  records  are  hsted  in  the  follow- 
ing table. 


Some  World's  Record  Cows, 

January 

I.   1919 

Name  of  Cow 

Breed 

Length  of 
Record 

Pounds  of 
Milk 

%  Test 

Pounds  of 
Fat 

Duchess  Skylark 

Days 

Orensby      .      . 

Holstein 

365 

27,761.70 

4-34 

1205.09 

Finderne  Holinen 

Fayne      .     .     . 

Holstein 

365 

24,612.8 

4-53 

1116.05 

K.     P.     Pontiac 

Holstein 

Lass,  106812    . 

5-5-20 1 

7 

585.5 

6.03 

35-32 

Creamelle     Vale, 

Holstein 

73357       •     •     ■ 

7-9-0 

365 

29,501-0 

3-12 

924.68 

Sophie's  Agnes    . 

Jersey 

365 

16,212.0 

6.12 

1000.87 

Murne  Cowan      . 

Guernsey 

24,008.0 

1098.18 

May  Rilma,  22761 

Guernsey 
6-4-16 

365 

19,673.0 

5-45 

1073.41 

College     Bravura 

Brown  Swiss 

2d,  2577       .     . 

Full  age 

365 

19,460.6 

4.10 

798.16 

Lily  of 

Willowmowe    . 

Ayrshire 

365 

22,596.0 

4-23 

955-56 

Pear 

Red  Poll 

13,160.6 

606.8 

Rose  of  Glenside 

Shorthorn 

365 

18,075.2 

624.76 

^  Age  at  which  record  was  made. 

Note  :  To  find  the  butter  production  add  I  to  the  amount  of  butter  fat. 

Test  Associations.  —  A  great  deal  of  improvement  in 
dairy  cattle  is  being  made  throughout  the  country  by  the 
establishment  of  "  Test  Associations."  In  these  associa- 
tions the  dairymen  of  a  community  band  together,  and 
employ  a  man  to  go  from  place  to  place  and  weigh  and 
test  the  milk  at  each  farm  once  a  month.  The  feed  is  also 
weighed.  The  farmer  weighs  the  milk  the  rest  of  the 
month,  and  the  monthly  test  is  taken  as  the  average  for 


272  LIVE  STOCK  IMPROVEMENT 

the  entire  month.  From  the  data  thus  obtained  the 
fanner  is  able  to  judge  the  profitable  and  unprofitable 
cows  in  his  herd.  This  makes  it  possible  for  him  to  im- 
prove his  herd  systematically.  It  is  not  necessary  that 
the  cows  be  pure-bred  or  that  they  belong  to  any  particular 
breed  of  cattle.  The  work  is  educational,  and  the  re- 
sults obtained  by  the  different  associations  have  done 
much  to  improve  dairying. 

Subsidizing  Sires.  —  Great  improvement  in  the  horse 
industry  has  been  made  in  France  and  Belgium  especially 
by  subsidizing  the  good  sires.  If  a  stallion  is  especially 
good,  the  government  pays  the  owner  a  bonus  so  that  it 
will  be  to  his  interest  to  keep  the  animal  in  the  country, 
otherwise  the  best  horses  would  be  exported.  By  this 
arrangement  the  standard  of  the  horses  of  those  countries 
is  kept  high.  A  similar  plan  is  worked  out  in  Ireland. 
The  government  owns  good  sires  and  places  them  in  cer- 
tain communities.  At  the  Agricultural  College  at  Glas- 
nevin  fine  herds  of  cattle  and  hogs  are  maintained.  The 
young  sires  produced  here  are  sold  to  the  good  breeders 
at  a  price  that  is  much  less  than  the  real  commercial  value 
of  the  animal.  The  breeder  must  agree  to  return  the  animal 
when  its  period  of  usefulness  on  that  farm  is  over.  These 
methods  are  working  incalculable  good  in  Great  Britain 
and  other  European  countries. 

Other  plans  for  improving  live  stock  are  in  use  in  this 
country.  Breeders'  associations  in  certain  localities  have 
done  much  good.  Associated  effort  makes  it  possible  for 
the  small  breeder  to  get  his  stock  before  the  public  more 
effectively  than  he  can  alone.  Prospective  purchasers 
would  rather  go  into  a  community  to  purchase  than  to  go 
to  any  one  breeder,  because  if  there  are  several  breeders 


EXERCISES  273 

in  the  same  community,  a  great  deal  of  time  and  money 
that  would  be  used  for  traveling  is  saved. 

On  the  islands  of  Guernsey  and  Jersey,  importation  of 
live  animals,  except  for  immediate  slaughter,  has  been 
prohibited  for  many  years.  Prizes  for  the  best  stock 
are  awarded  annually  by  the  local  breeders'  associations. 
The  result  is  that  their  cattle  have  been  kept  pure  in 
breeding  and  the  purchaser  is  sure  of  it.  The  possibiHty 
of  introducing  disease  has  also  been  eliminated. 

Stallion  Enrollment.  —  One  of  the  most  effective  methods 
of  live  stock  improvement  in  this  country  is  the.  enrollment 
of  stallions,  which  was  established  in  Wisconsin  some 
years  ago  and  has  since  been  adopted  by  many  progressive 
states  in  the  Union.  This  has  the  effect  of  eliminating 
the  unsound  and  unfit,  so  that  only  the  best  types  are 
allowed  to  perpetuate  their  kind. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Do  you  practice  fine  breeding  or  crossbreeding  on  the 
home  farm  ? 

2.  Do  you  keep  herd  records  of  any  sort? 

3.  Has  the  trotting  horse  been  improved  by  the  use  of  records  ? 
In  what  way  ? 

4.  Do  you  know  of  any  one  who  is  now  making  use  of  records 
to  secure  live  stock  improvement? 

5.  Is  crossbreeding  successful  with  any  class  of  animals? 

HOME   PROJECT 

Keep  milk,  butter  fat,  and  feed  records  of  the  animals  in  the 
home  dairy  herd,  with  a  view  to  selecting  those  best  suited  for 
breeding  purposes. 

T.    AND   L.    ANIMAL   HUSB. 1 8 


CHAPTER  XIX 
FARM   POULTRY 

The  hen  on  the  farm  may  be  characterized  as  the  "  penny- 
saver."  Each  individual  hen  accomplishes  little,  but  the 
aggregate  saving  of  a  flock  of  hens  is  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance.  No  other  animal  is  more  economical  in  the 
consumption  and  assimilation  of  food,  or  can  utilize  waste 
products  to  better  advantage. 

The  Farm  Flock  Should  Be  of  Pure  Breeds.  —  As  the 
pure-bred  animal,  which  has  been  especially  selected  and 
raised  for  some  definite  end,  will  excel  a  mongrel  or  native 
animal  in  the  special  kind  of  performance  for  which  it  is 
bred,  so  a  pure-bred  Leghorn,  Plymouth  Rock,  or  Rhode 
Island  Red  hen  will  lay  more  eggs  than  a  mongrel  or  scrub 
hen,  because  she  has  been  specially  bred  for  this  purpose. 

But  the  desirabiHty  of  raising  pure-bred  poultry  does 
not  end  with  the  gain  in  number  of  eggs.  Pure-bred  market 
fowls  are  uniform  in  appearance,  have  the  same  color  of 
skin  and  legs,  the  same  shape  of  breast  and  weigh  about 
the  same  number  of  pounds  each ;  consequently  the  car- 
casses of  pure-bred  fowls  sell  for  more  on  the  market. 

Pure-bred  fowls  utilize  their  feed  to  better  advantage ;  for 
the  more  highly  bred  an  animal  is  the  less  food  it  requires 
to  produce  a  given  product.  It  has  often  been  stated  that 
pure-bred  hens  do  not  require  any  more  to  keep  them  than 
common  or  scrub   stock.     Besides,  they  have  the  power 

274 


CARE  OF  THE  FLOCK  275 


*-,1PpiPPfiM^S^'^Wjpifc    ^   ^..- 

.if.tr/ / 

mm^'          mat-            MtKtmi^-  ''*'<* 

1 f. _^_ : .■      •     ■'     ■'.i»^'> -JL .'■*     ■       ■-          ■ 

Fig.  98.  —  White  Plymouth  Rocks. 

of  turning  their  feed  into  a  fancy  product  at  a  greater 
profit  to  the  poultry  breeder. 

Buyers  of  spring  chickens  readily  pay  more  for  a  coop  of 
uniform  broilers  than  they  will  for  a  coop  containing  the 
same  number  of  nondescript  fowls  of  various  colors  and 
shapes,  because  pure-bred  chickens  fatten  more  quickly  and 
more  uniformly  and  sell  for  a  higher  price. 

Care  of  the  Flock.  The  farm  flock  should  be  comfortably 
housed  and  well  fed.  The  hens  should  be  confined  within 
definite  bounds  so  that,  while  they  are  not  crowded  and 
hampered,  yet  they  will  not  have  an  opportunity  to  run 
about  the  farm,  wasting  energy,  losing  eggs,  and  being 
a  general  nuisance.  While  exercise  is  necessary  to  the  best 
health  of  the  poultry,  it  should  be  intelligently  restricted. 
During  the  breeding  season,  however,  it  is  well  to  let  the 
breeders  have  plenty  of  exercise. 

Two  Houses  Desirable.  —  On  the  average  farm  the 
pullets  are  housed  with  the  old  hens.  When  the  young 
pullets  are  put  in  the  same  house  the  old  hens  usually  annoy 


276 


FARIM   POULTRY 


and  frighten  them  so  that  they  cease  growing  and  developing 
eggs.  For  this  reason  it  is  desirable  to  have  either  two 
poultty  houses  or  one  house  so  divided  that  the  old  hens 
may  be  kept  in  one  compartment  and  the  pullets  in  the 
other. 

Poultry  House.  —  The  farm  poultry  house  must  be  dry 
at  all  times,  with  a  tight  roof  which  keeps  out  rains  and 


^^K^.       T 

rti 

^S^^^—j.  *'  ib^lI^^^^^      %jom^     tSBtiiJ^^B 

ij™ 

ffl 

lifi! 

i 

bfe.: 

On 

'  -  '<g!S3tK-jftrmiA\\  mil  1  ■  liWil 

Fig.   99.  —  Shed  type  of  poultry  house. 

melting  snows,  and  walls  proof  against  driving  storms.  The 
floor  must  be  sufficiently  high  above  the  natural  surface  of 
the  ground  to  prevent  water  from  running  over  it.  In 
most  locations  the  floor  should  be  raised  so  that  it  is  from 
six  inches  to  a  foot  above  the  natural  level  of  the  ground. 

Air  and  Light  Necessary.  —  The  poultry  house  should 
have  plenty  of  light,  and  should  furnish  an  abundance  of 
fresh  air  without  draft.  It  should  be  sufficiently  warm  so 
that  the  hens  are  not  subjected  to  sudden  and  extreme 
changes  of  temperature,  and  so  arranged  that  it  can  be 
easily  and  perfectly  cleaned. 


TYPES  OF  HOUSES 


277 


Two  Types  of  Houses.  —  There  are  two  general  types  of 
houses ;  namely,  the  colony  house  or  disconnected  unit, 
and  the  continuous,  or  connected  type.  The  latter  is  really 
a  multiplication  of  colony  houses  set  side  by  side  under  a 
single  roof. 

The  Colony  House.  —  It  is  claimed  that  the  hens  do 
better  in  small  flocks  than  in  large  groups.  Moreover,  small 
houses  holding  from  twenty-five  to  fifty  hens  each  can 
be  scattered  about 
the  farm  and  moved 
from  field  to  field  as 
the  crops  are  rotated. 
This  type  of  house  is 
in  special  favor  in 
places  where  the  land 
is  too  rough  for 
economically  build- 
ing long  continuous 
houses.  It  is  by  all 
odds  the  best  type  for 
the  general  farmer. 

Amount  of  Floor 
Space  per  Hen.  — 
From  three  to  four 
square  feet  of  floor 
space  per  hen  is  sufii- 
cient.  The  smaller  the  house  the  greater  should  be  the  allow- 
ance per  hen,  for  the  reason  that  the  total  area  over  which 
one  hen  can  roam  is  very  much  greater  in  a  large  house. 

Amount  of  Yard  Space  per  Hen.  —  Ten  hens  can  very 
easily  be  kept  in  a  yard  sixteen  feet  square,  if  there  is  an- 
other yard  of  the  same  size  in  which  they  can  be  alternated 


Fig.  100.  —  Outside  of  a  poultry  house  in  winter. 


Fig.  loi.  — Inside  of  poultry  house  shown  in  Fig.  100. 


278  FARM  POULTRY 

occasionally,  and  some  green  crop  grown  thereon  for  the 
purpose  of  renovating  the  soil.  The  same  ten  hens  can  be 
confined  in  a  space  ten  feet  square  if  the  soil  be  spaded  and 
renovated  frequently.  It  is  better  to  err  on  the  side  of  too 
much  space  than  too  little.  A  safe  rule  is  to  make  the  yard 
so  large  that  the  hens  will  never  kill  the  grass  on  it,  and  then 
have  another  yard  of  the  same  size  into  which  they  can  be 
turned  on  alternate  months. 

Renewing  the  Farm  Flock. —  It  is  no  easy  task  to  set  a 
hen  properly,  and  many  eggs  are  spoiled  annually  because 
people  are  careless  or  ignorant  in  this  respect. 

First  of  all,  a  cozy  nest,  neither  too  large  nor  too  small, 
should  be  provided.  If  too  large,  the  eggs  will  be  scattered ; 
if  too  small,  the  hen  is  likely  to  break  the  eggs  in  getting  on 
and  off  the  nest.  A  box  approximately  fifteen  inches  square 
by  eight  inches  deep  is  an  acceptable  size.  Earth  may  first 
be  placed  in  it,  then  chaff  or  cut  hay  on  top  of  this.  The  nest 
should  be  hollow  so  that  the  eggs  will  not  roll  around.  A 
quiet  hen  should  be  selected,  not  too  large,  and  placed  on 
a  setting  of  china  eggs  for  a  few  days  to  get  her  accustomed 
to  the  nest. 

A  fussy,  flighty  hen  is  a  nuisance  and  ought  never  be  used. 
If  the  hen  breaks  an  egg  and  smears  the  others,  they  must 
be  taken  out  and  washed  with  warm  water,  for  smeared  eggs 
will  not  hatch.  Too  many  eggs  should  not  be  placed  in  one 
nest.  A  far  greater  percentage  of  chicks  will  hatch  if  a 
setting  of  eggs  is  put  under  two  hens  than  if  all  are  put 
under  one  hen.  In  cold  weather  nine  eggs  is  sufficient. 
The  chicks  may  be  placed  with  one  hen  after  they  are 
hatched. 

The  nest  box  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  closed 
except  when  the  hen  is  to  be  taken  off  for  feeding  and 


CARE  OF  HEN   AND   CHICKS 


279 


watering.  Closing  the  nest  box  prevents  other  hens  from 
disturbing  the  sitter  or  rats  from  steaHng  the  eggs. 

Care  of  the  Sitting  Hens.  —  Best  results  are  obtained 
when  the  sitting  hens  are  fed  only  corn  in  addition  to  water 
and  grit.  Many  poultry  men  provide  a  dust  bath  in  the 
room  so  that  the  hen  can  dust  when  she  is  off  for  feeding, 
but  this  purpose  can  better  be  accomplished  by  thoroughly 
dusting  the  hen  with  insect  powder  before  setting  her  and 
once  or  twice  during  the  period  of  incubation. 

Care  of  Young  Chicks.  —  When  the  chicks  are  hatched 
it  is  best  to  raise  them  artificially,  after  the  third  or  fourth 
day.  If  it  is  desired  to  use  the  hen  as  a  brooder,  she  should 
be  confined  in  a  slatted  coop  so  that  the  chicks  can  wander 
about  and  return  to  the  hen  for  warmth  and  at  night. 
Chicks  do  not  do  so  well  if  allowed  to  run  with  the  hen.  The 
general  care  and  feeding  of  the  chicks  hatched  with  hens 
should  be  the  same  as  for  brooder  chicks,  described  later. 

Beginners'  Mistakes.  —  It  is  common  for  beginners  to 
expect  too  many  chicks  from  a  setting  of  eggs.  A  hatch  of 
50  per  cent  of  the  eggs  is  good  and  75  per  cent  is  very  good 
indeed. 

A  point  that  beginners  do  not  always  understand  is  that 


Fig.  102.  —  Old-fashioned  coop  that  has  many  advantages. 


28o  FARM  POULTRY 

the  down  on  chicks  is  not  always  the  color  of  their  parents. 
Chicks  from  eggs  of  the  black  breeds,  such  as  Black  Cochins 
and  Black  Langshans,  often  hatch  out  white,  but  are  none 
the  less  pure  for  all  that,  and  will  grow  up  into  perfectly 
black  fowls.  Chicks  from  white  breeds  often  hatch  out  dark, 
but  they  become  perfectly  white  after  they  shed  their  first 
feathers. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  is  poultry  an  economical  farm  product? 

2.  Why  is  it  desirable  to  separate  young  pullets  from  old 
hens  ? 

3.  Give  five  reasons  for  raising  pure  breeds  of  farm  poultry. 

4.  Why  should  hens  be  comfortably  housed,  and  well  fed  ? 

5.  What  is  the  reason  for  providing  for  exercise  in  poultry 
production  ? 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  What  provision  is  made  for  poultry  and  egg  production 
on  your  home  farm  ?  How  may  these  conditions  be  improved  ? 
Outline  a  plan  and  put  it  into  operation. 

2.  If  pullets  are  yarded  with  old  hens  at  home,  try  separat- 
ing them  if  possible  and  note  the  effect  on  egg  production. 
Keep  accurate  records. 


CHAPTER  XX 
INCUBATION   AND   BROODING 

Artificial  and  Natural  Incubation  Compared.  —  Hens 
are  used  to  incubate  only  on  the  most  limited  scale.  In 
fact,  artificial  incubation  has  been  so  improved  and  per- 
fected in  its  methods  that,  all  things  considered,  the  work 
can  really  be  done  more  satisfactorily  by  first-class  ma- 
chines. 

Another  advantage  of  artificial  incubation  is  that  by 
means  of  it  one  can  produce  greater  numbers  of  chickens 
than  would  be  possible  if  it  were  necessary  to  depend  en- 
tirely upon  hens  for  incubation.  Then,  too,  by  hatching 
with  a  machine  one  controls  conditions ;  there  is  no  hen  to 
leave  the  nest  at  night ;  none  of  the  eggs  become  broken 
and  smeared  over  the  remaining  ones ;  the  nest  does  not 
become  soiled.  In  every  way  artificial  methods  admit  of 
better  sanitary  measures,  so  that  the  chances  for  producing 
stronger,  healthier  chicks  are  very  much  greater.  The  in- 
cubator can  be  thoroughly  disinfected  at  the  beginning  of 
the  hatch,  and  it  stays  so  until  the  chicks  have  popped  from 
the  shells.  Incubator  chicks  are  free  from  lice,  and  can  be 
kept  so  until  they  are  large  enough  to  run  at  large  with 
other  poultry,  when  the  lice  will  do  little  harm. 

It  is  a  great  satisfaction  to  care  for  a  flock  of  artificially 
hatched  chickens,  because  the  brood  is  so  much  larger. 
With   the  use  of  the   proper   appHances    500   artificially 

281 


282  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

hatched  chicks  can  be  cared  for  just  as  easily  as  five 
broods  of  hen-hatched  chicks. 

When  incubators  are  used  the  directions  furnished  with 
the  machine  for  its  operation  should  be  closely  followed. 

Selecting  Eggs  for  Incubation.' — Although  eggs  that 
are  not  uniform  in  size,  shape,  or  thickness  of  shell  ap- 
parently hatch  as  well  as  more  nearly  perfect  eggs,  pro- 
vided all  of  a  kind  are  put  into  the  same  machine,  it  is  in- 
advisable to  use  them.  The  unsafe  feature  of  promiscuous 
selection  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  eggs  of  poor  shape  and 
shell  have  been  laid  by  hens  with  whom  the  char- 
acteristic of  producing  eggs  of  this  nature  is  dominant ;  and 
so  the  chicks  hatched  from  these  eggs  show  a  tendency  to 
lay  eggs  of  poor  shape.  Then,  too,  eggs  of  different  sizes 
and  different  thicknesses  of  shell  do  not  respond  to  the 
heat  of  incubation  so  evenly  as  do  eggs  that  are  more  nearly 
uniform  in  size  and  shell. 

It  is  advisable  but  not  necessary  to  test  out  infertile 
eggs  after  the  sixth  or  eighth  day.  It  is  advisable  because 
removing  them  obviates  crowding  at  hatching  time. 

Effect  of  Chilling  on  Incubation.  —  Eggs  should  not  be 
used  for  incubation  after  a  sudden  drop  in  temperature. 
Where  thousands  of  eggs  have  been  incubated,  it  has  been 
observed  that  those  collected  on  the  day  of  a  sudden 
change  in  temperature,  or  a  day  or  so  afterward,  do  not 
hatch  so  well,  even  when  they  have  not  been  chilled,  as 
those  collected  during  the  period  when  the  temperature 
was  more  nearly  uniform,  regardless  of  the  degree  of  cold- 
ness. It  is  inadvisable  to  hold  eggs  which  are  to  be  incu- 
bated, for  any  length  of  time.  The  only  time  when  it  is 
advisable  is  when  the  flock  is  extremely  small  and  the 
incubating  facilities  are  limited. 


CLEANLINESS  AND  TEMPERATURE  283 

Effect  of  Age  on  Incubation.  —  It  has  been  stated  that 
eggs  should  not  be  held  for  any  great  length  of  time.  How- 
ever, if  it  is  found  necessary  to  hold  the  eggs  from  a  week 
to  ten  days  the  eggs  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place, 
free  from  excessive  air  circulation.  The  best  results  will  be 
obtained  if  the  temperature  of  the  storage  room  does  not 
fluctuate  beyond  the  extremes  of  50°  and  60°  Fahrenheit. 

Effect  of  Cleanliness  on  Incubation.  —  No  egg  should  be 
used  for  incubation  which  was  excessively  soiled  in  the 
nest;  in  fact  best  results  are  obtained  where  no  cleaning 
has  been  required.  Where  eggs  are  incubated  later  than 
the  first  of  April,  in  middle  and  northern  latitudes  they 
should  be  disinfected  with  a  weak  solution  of  crude  car- 
boHc  acid.  Farther  south,  disinfection  should  be  practiced 
earHer  in  the  year.  The  trays  and  all  removable  parts  of 
the  incubator  should  be  thoroughly  scrubbed  with  a  three 
per  cent  solution  of  the  above  disinfectant,  using  a  stiff 
vegetable  brush,  and  every  portion  of  the  interior  thor- 
oughly sprayed  with  the  same  solution.  Every  possible 
means  should  be  used  to  make  the  incubator  aseptic 
before  the  eggs  are  placed  in  it.  The  eggs  should  be 
put  in  the  machine  while  it  is  still  surcharged  with  this 
antiseptic  vapor.  Small  pans  containing  a  weaker  solution 
of  the  above  disinfectant  may  be  placed  under  each  tray  of 
eggs,  so  that  throughout  the  entire  hatch  the  eggs  are 
kept  in  as  nearly  an  aseptic  atmosphere  as  is  possible. 

Effect  of  Temperature  on  Incubation.  —  When  the  tem- 
perature can  be  kept  uniform,  the  resulting  hatches  are 
more  nearly  uniform  and  the  chicks  stronger  than  when 
a  fluctuating  temperature  is  maintained  throughout  the 
hatch.  The  proper  hatching  temperature  is  102°  to  103° 
Fahrenheit. 


284  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

Testing  the  Thermometer.  —  In  starting  the  hatch,  no 
thermometer,  however  good  the  make  or  however  rehable 
its  past  history  may  be,  should  be  used  without  first  test- 
ing it  by  comparison  with  a  standardized  thermometer. 
It  has  been  found  best  to  recaUbrate  or  test  the  ther- 
mometer at  the  beginning  of  each  season,  as  the  readings 
change  from  year  to  year.  This  is  due  to  the  ''seasoning" 
of  the  glass  from  which  the  thermometer  is  made. 

To  Test  and  Recalibrate  an  Incubator  Thermometer. — 
Provide  a  large  shallow  basin  of  water  heated  to  110°, 
place  a  standardized  thermometer  and  one  to  be  tested 
side  by  side  in  the  water  with  the  mercury  bulbs  about 
one  inch  below  the  surface ;  compare  the  two  until  water 
has  cooled  to  96°,  making  a  note  of  the  comparative  read- 
ing on  the  two  thermometers.  Then  mark  the  correction, 
if  any,  on  the  incubator  thermometer. 

Effect  of  Moisture  on  Incubation.  —  Close  watch  needs 
be  kept  on  the  relative  humidity  of  air  in  the  machine. 
Best  results  are  obtained  when  the  relative  humidity  is 
not  less  than  50  per  cent.  With  most  machines  the  ad- 
dition of  moisture  is  necessary.  The  surest  and  safest 
way  to  maintain  humidity  is  by  the  use  of  the  wet  sand 
tray.  The  water  used  for  moistening  the  sand  should 
contain  about  one  per  cent  of  some  volatile  disinfectant. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  lowering  of  temperature  within 
the  incubator,  this  water  should  be  brought  to  102°  Fah- 
renheit before  being  added  to  the  trays. 

What  Constitutes  a  Good  Hatch.  —  The  real  test  of  the 
hatch  is  not  the  fertility  but  the  number  of  chicks  resulting 
from  the  total  number  of  eggs  incubated.  The  total  num- 
ber of  chicks  should  not  mean  the  total  number  that  suc- 
ceeded in  freeing  themselves  from  the  shells  without  help, 


BROODING  CHICKS  285 

but  should  include  only  such  chicks  as  dry  off  nicely,  are 
undeformed,  bright,  and  have  "  shape."  It  is  a  mistake  to 
attempt  to  raise  all  of  the  chicks  that  hatch.  The  test  of 
a  hatch  is  the  number  of  perfect  chicks  taken  to  the  brooder 
which  require  no  special  care  over  and  above  what  is 
given  to  the  average  of  the  flock  to  make  them  thrive  and 
grow.  A  poor  hatch  may  be  due  to  poor  eggs,  weakness 
of  the  breeding  stock,  lack  of  proper  care  of  the  eggs  be- 
fore placing  them  in  the  incubator,  or  bad  management  of 
the  machine. 

Brooding  Young  Chicks.  —  The  term  brooding  is  meant 
to  include  the  warming,  feeding,  care,  hygiene,  and  com- 
fort of  young  chicks.  Eternal  vigilance  and  regularity  are 
the  price  of  success  in  this  work.  There  should  be  stated 
periods  for  cleaning  and  disinfecting,  and  then  one's  best 
judgment  should  be  used  to  detect  any  additional  need. 

Before  a  chick  is  hatched,  one  should  decide  what  to 
feed ;  at  what  hours  to  feed ;  how  often  to  clean ;  how 
frequently  to  disinfect ;  with  what  to  disinfect ;  how  soon 
to  feed  the  chicks;  and  at  what  temperature  to  operate 
the  brooder.  Then  after  once  having  settled  on  this  rou- 
tine of  procedure,  making  use  of  the  best  information  and 
observation  in  formulating  it,  follow  it  out  intelligently, 
thoroughly,  and  persistently. 

Artificial  Brooding  Preferred.  —  Chicks  should  be 
brooded  artificially  wherever  it  is  possible,  for  by  so  doing 
all  conditions  can  be  kept  under  control;  more  chicks 
can  be  handled  by  one  person,  and  sturdier,  more  rapid 
growth  can  be  obtained.  If  the  brooder  is  cleaned  and 
disinfected  before  incubator  chicks  are  placed  in  it,  all 
possibility  of  their  becoming  lousy  while  of  a  tender  age  is 
eliminated. 


286  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

The  brooder  should  be  thoroughly  heated  and  dried  out 
several  days  before  the  first  chicks  are  placed  in  it.  Then 
a  slight  sprinkling  of  sand  should  be  spread  over  the  floors 
to  facilitate  cleaning  and  to  supply  the  chicks  with  some 
form  of  grit.  A  constant  supply  of  clean,  cool  water,  regu- 
lar heat,  and  fresh  air  should  be  maintained.  The  tem- 
perature under  the  hover  should  always  be  higher  than  is 
required  to  keep  chicks  comfortable,  so  that  at  any  time 
they  may  go  under  the  hover  and  be  warmed  quickly  with- 
out crow^ding.  During  the  first  three  weeks  of  the  chick's 
life  the  hover  room  and  feed  room  of  the  brooder  should  be 
scraped,  scrubbed,  and  cleaned  frequently.  A  5  per  cent 
solution  of  a  strong  disinfectant  is  used  for  this  purpose. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  order  that  the  chicks  may 
receive  their  food  free  of  contamination  from  the  droppings 
or  floor  litter. 

Sanitary  Precautions  Necessary.  —  On  the  most  success- 
ful poultry  plants  strict  sanitary  measures  are  observed 
throughout  the  period  of  brooding,  so  that  up  to  the  time 
the  chicks  are  taken  to  the  open  range  or,  if  brooding  is  done 
with  hens,  up  to  the  weaning  time,  there  is  no  chance  for 
disease  to  creep  in.  The  brooders  are  arranged  so  that 
each  compartment  can  be  quickly  and  easily  cleaned  and 
disinfected.  Whenever  a  dead  chick  is  found,  all  the  litter 
should  be  removed  and  the  brooder  cleaned  and  disin- 
fected. 

Feeding  Brooder  Chicks.  —  In  feeding,  an  effort  should 
be  made  to  attain  the  happy  mean  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  underfeeding  and  overfeeding.  As  a  rule  more 
chicks  are  killed  by  overfeeding  than  by  underfeeding,  and 
the  overfeeding  in  most  cases  starts  by  feeding  too  soon, 
while  underfeeding  results  in  small,  weak  chicks.     Forty 


METHODS  OF  FEEDING  287 

hours  after  the  chick  has  dried  in  the  incubator  is  soon 
enough  to  begin  feeding  it,  and  it  is  safer  not  to  feed  it  until 
it  is  seventy-two  hours  old  than  to  feed  it  when  it  is  only 
twenty-four  hours  from  the  shell.  It  is  important  that 
artificially  hatched  chicks  should  be  transferred  from 
hatcher  to  brooder  in  the  evening,  after  dusk,  so  that  they 
will  stay  under  the  hover.  After  they  have  nestled  under 
the  warm  hover  for  a  night  they  learn  the  purpose  of  it, 
and  will  instinctively  return  to  it  at  all  hours  when  they 
require  warmth. 

There  are  almost  as  many  good  methods  of  feeding  chicks 
as  there  are  good  poultrymen,  so  that  it  is  only  necessary 
to  give  the  following  sim.ple  and  typical  method  which 
exemplifies  the  principles  involved. 

The  first  feed  consists  of  a  mixture  composed  of  eggs 
which  have  been  boiled  hard  and  thoroughly  ground, 
shells  and  all,  with  bran  and  pinhead  oatmeal.  The  pro- 
portion of  eggs  to  bran  and  meal  should  be  such  that  when 
rubbed  together  the  moisture  of  the  egg  will  be  taken  up  by 
the  other  ingredients.  When  feeding  is  commenced  forty 
to  forty-eight  hours  after  hatching,  the  chicks  should  have 
only  as  much  of  this  mixture  as  they  will  eat  up  quickly 
and  greedily  in  ten  minutes,  five  times  daily.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  each  chick  is  taught  to  eat.  It  is  very 
essential  that  the  chicks  have  plenty  of  grit  and  water  for 
the  first  few  days.  It  is  also  well  to  mLx  a  small  amount 
of  charcoal  with  the  egg  and  bran.  After  the  first  or  second 
day,  when  it  is  apparent  that  all  of  the  chicks  have  learned 
to  eat,  a  grain  chick  feed  should  be  given  them  at  two  of 
the  feeding  periods  the  first  day,  and  the  egg  mixture 
diminished,  until  at  the  end  of  the  first  week  they  are  re- 
ceiving only  one  feeding  of  the  egg  mixture,  daily  at  noon. 


INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 


Fig.  103.  — Self-feeder  for  chicks. 


A  good  grain  feed  is 
made  b  >•  mixing 
equal  parts  of  cracked 
wheat,  pinhead  oat- 
meal, and  finely 
cracked  corn. 

Beginning  the  third 
week,  the  noon  feed- 
ing of  the  egg  mixture 
is  changed  to  a  mash 
mixture  made  of  ten  pounds  of  bran,  eight  pounds  of  corn 
meal,  eight  pounds  of  middhngs,  two  pounds  of  alfalfa  meal, 
and  three  pounds  of  good  clean  meat  scrap.  Wheat  bran 
with  10  per  cent  of  meat  scrap  may  be  substituted  for  this 
mixture.  When  this  mash  feed  is  first  given  it  should  be 
slightly  moistened  with  warm  water  or  skim  milk,  gradually 
reducing  the  amount  of  moisture  until  the  chicks  have 
learned  to  eat  the  meal  mixture  dry.  It  can  then  be  left 
before  them.  If  skim  milk  can  be  had  for  mixing  the  mash, 
the  meat  may  be  omitted.  As  soon  as  the  chicks  have 
learned  to  eat  the  dry  mash,  the  milk  may  be  given  to 
them  in  a  drinking  vessel. 


^::^^X^    .    j/^  ^viv^^\\\\WN\s\\\\\\\\\\\i^^^ 


Fig.  104.  —  A  mash  hopper. 


BROODER  HOUSE  289 

After  the  third  week  the  grain  food  is  reduced  to  three 
times  a  day,  and  coarser  grains  are  added  to  it  until  at  the 
end  of  the  fifth  week  they  are  receiving  about  equal  parts 
of  chick  feed  and  the  whole  grain,  such  as  whole  wheat, 
kaffir  corn,  and  small  cracked  corn.  The  amount  of  fine 
grain  or  chick  feed  is  then  reduced  until  they  are  receiving 
all  coarse  grains. 

The  chicks  should  be  allowed  to  stay  in  the  brooder  house 
until  they  are  thoroughly  feathered  and  the  sexes  sepa- 
rated. In  this  way  every  possibility  of  their  becoming 
chilled  while  of  tender  age  is  avoided.  By  having  the  in- 
door runs  roomy  and  by  supplying  fresh  untrampled  green 
feed  in  the  form  of  lawn  or  rye  clippings,  sturdier  and  more 
rapid  growth  is  obtained,  and  the  mortality  is  also  much 
less  than  if  the  chicks  are  allowed  to  run  where  they  choose 
and  are  compelled  to  search  for  a  part  of  their  food. 

A  Good  Brooder  House. — A  good  type  of  brooder 
house  is  one  built  24  feet  wide.  It  has  a  sunken  passage 
4  feet  wide  throughout  its  entire  length.  It  is  heated 
with  two  hot-water  brooding  systems.  The  hover  rooms 
are  3  feet  square  and  open  into  runways  3  by  7  feet. 

All  floors  are  of  concrete.  All  screens,  doors,  and  parti- 
tions have  removable  frames,  which  are  interchangeable,  so 
that  any  one  set  of  frames  can  be  used  for  any  of  the  brood- 
ers throughout  the  house. 

The  watering  is  done  in  galvanized  iron  troughs,  located 
outside  the  hover  rooms  and  placed  in  such  a  way  that  the 
chicks  drink  through  openings  in  the  back  wall.  By  this 
arrangement  the  water  is  kept  pure  and  clean. 

Near  the  center  of  the  building  is  a  kitchenette  in  which 
the  food  is  prepared  for  the  chicks  during  the  first  few 
weeks  of  their  lives. 

T.    AND   L.  ANIMAL   HUSB.  —  19 


290  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

No  other  material  is  so  good  and  economical  for  a 
brooder  house  floor  as  concrete.  It  is  rat  proof,  draft 
proof,  and  permits  of  thorough  and  easy  cleaning. 

The  Small  Flock  Best.  —  Whether  chicks  are  raised  on 
a  large  or  a  small  scale  it  is  almost  imperative  that  they  be 
started  in  small  flocks  if  one  expects  to  raise  a  high  per- 
centage of  them.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  little 
chicks  do  not  know  how  to  eat  wisely,  and  must  be  taught. 
When  they  are  placed  in  large  flocks  some  of  them  are  sure 
to  be  neglected  or  overlooked,  and  die  as  a  result,  after  the 
third  or  fourth  day.  If  they  are  started  in  small  flocks 
each  individual's  chances  for  proper  attention  increase  in 
direct  proportion  to  the  decrease  in  the  size  of  the  flock. 

For  the  first  week  the  chicks  should  be  placed  in  flocks 
of  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five ;  and  at  the  first  few  feeding 
periods  the  attendant  should  see  that  each  separate  chick 
has  tasted  its  food  and  submerged  its  beak  in  the  water, 
even  if  they  have  to  be  picked  up  one  at  a  time  and  fed 
and  watered  by  hand. 

This  teaching  period  may  be  shortened  and  facifitated 
by  introducing  one  or  two  older  chickens,  free  from  lice 
and  disease,  into  each  flock.  After  the  chicks  are  six  or 
seven  days  old  several  shovelfuls  of  moist  earth  or  muck 
are  thrown  into  the  corner  of  the  runs  for  them  to  pick 
over.  It  is  found  that  they  will  eat  a  great  deal  of  this, 
as  it  apparently  fulfills  some  whim  of  appetite  or  body  need 
which  cannot  be  supplied  in  the  feed,  especially  where 
the  chicks  are  closely  confined  to  yards. 

At  the  end  of  two  or  three  weeks,  and  after  they  have 
learned  to  take  care  of  themselves,  the  number  in  a  flock 
may  be  increased. 

Many  beginners  have  difficulty  in  raising  late-hatched 


CHICKS  ON  THE  RANGE  291 

chicks,  a  not  uncommon  happening  even  with  experienced 
poultrymen.  This  condition  is  explained  by  the  fact 
that  in  order  to  raise  chickens  successfully  the  number 
which  is  placed  in  a  flock  must  be  diminished  as  the  season 
grows  later,  because  in  any  climate  where  the  nights  are 
markedly  colder  than  the  days,  it  matters  not  what  system 
of  brooding  is  used,  the  chickens  crowd  in  the  brooders  and 
trample  each  other  to  death. 

Range  Raised  Chicks.  —  It  has  been  said  that  constitu- 
tional vigor  is  nature's  stamp  of  approval  upon  man's  ef- 
fort at  animal  breeding  and  improvement.  There  is  no 
surer  way  to  foster  this  desirable  character  than  by  develop- 
ing the  fully  feathered  chicks  on  free  range  after  they 
leave  the  brooder. 

The  excellent  results  obtained  from  range  raised  chicks 
illustrate  the  desirability  of  putting  into  the  young  animal 
solid  bone  and  sturdy  muscle  that  can  come  only  from  un- 
hampered, spontaneous,  and  instinctive  exercise,  the  exer- 
cise of  the  young  animal  at  play.  At  ten  or  twelve  weeks 
the  sexes  should  be  separated  and  the  females  taken  to  the 
range,  where  they  are  given  liberty  to  run  over  fields  of 
growing  crops,  or  under  the  shade  of  wood  pastures.  The 
cockerels  should  be  carefully  inspected  for  individuals  that 
give  promise  of  developing  into  superior  breeders,  and  these 
should  be  either  sold  at  once  or  taken  to  a  separate  range. 
The  remaining  ones  should  be  fattened  and  sold  as  broilers. 

On  the  range  the  chicks  should  be  placed  in  flocks  of  one 
hundred  to  two  hundred  and  fifty  for  each  range  house. 
They  should  be  allowed  to  run  in  small  temporary  yards 
for  a  few  days  until  they  learn  to  go  in  and  out  of  the  house. 
After  this  they  may  range  at  will,  the  members  of  each  flock 
returning  at  night  to  their  respective  houses. 


292  INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 

EXERCISES 

1.  Why  select  eggs  of  uniform  size,  shape,  and  shell  for 
hatching  purposes? 

2.  Why  are  white-shelled  eggs  more  easily  affected  by  heat 
than  brown-shelled  eggs? 

3.  Why  should  soiled  eggs  be  rejected  for  incubation? 

4.  Why  should  eggs  for  incubation  not  be  held  for  several 
days,  particularly  in  warm  weather? 

5.  What  is  the  purpose  of  disinfection  in  brooding  chicks? 

6.  Why  is  it  important  to  keep  the  air  in  an  incubator  moist  ? 

7.  Why  does  sprinkling  the  eggs  in  the  incubator  cool  them? 

8.  Give  some  good  methods  of  disinfection. 

HOME   PROJECTS 

1.  What  method  of  incubation  is  used  at  your  home, — 
natural  or  artificial?  Keep  count  of  all  eggs  set  by  natural 
method,  the  total  number  of  chicks  hatched,  and  calculate  the 
percentage  of  hatched  eggs. 

2.  Get  permission  to  take  charge  of  the  incubator  and  pro- 
duce a  hatch  of  chicks,  following  directions  as  closely  as  pos- 
sible, and  calculate  the  percentage  of  eggs  hatched. 

3.  Get  permission  to  take  full  charge  of  all  eggs  set  and 
hatched  by  the  natural  method  at  home,  if  the  incubator  is  not 
used.     Calculate  results. 

4.  Feed  young  chicks  for  broilers,  and  by  records  ascertain 
actual  cost  of  production. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

FEEDING,  CARE,  AND   MANAGEMENT  OF 
LAYING  HENS 

When  to  Feed.  —  For  heaviest  production  mature  stock 
should  be  fed  at  least  three  times  daily  throughout  the 
year,  and  during  certain  seasons  may  be  fed  five  times  a 
day.  The  first  feed  given  in  the  morning,  regardless  of 
season,  is  generally  a  grain  mixture,  scattered  on  the  floor 
in  deep  straw  litter.  This  first  feeding  should  take  place 
at  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning,  or  earher  according  to 
season,  but  always   at   the   same  hour,  and   the  amount 


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Fig.  105.  —  There  should  be  plenty  of  litter  on  the  floor. 
293 


294  CARE  OF  LAYING  HENS 

of  grain  should  be  so  regulated  that  the  fowls  will  clean  it 
up  in  two  or  three  hours. 

How  to  Feed.  —  In  the  spring  and  summer  time,  when  it 
is  possible  for  the  hens  to  get  green  feed  in  the  yards,  no 
other  feeding  is  necessary  before  noon  except  filling  troughs 
with  skim  milk,  or  buttermilk  if  it  can  be  had.  If,  however, 
there  has  been  a  long  drought  and  the  vegetation  in  the 
yards  is  withered  and  parched,  green  alfalfa  or  alfalfa  hay, 
cut  in  short  lengths  and  soaked  in  water  long  enough  to 
swell  and  become  succulent,  may  be  placed  in  the  troughs 
at  about  ten  o'clock  in  the  morning. 

At  noon  more  grain  is  scattered  in  the  litter,  and  again 
at  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  At  the  last  feeding  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  feed  just  a  little  more  than  the 
hens  will  clean  up,  so  that  there  will  be  something  left  in 
the  litter  for  them  to  start  work  on  again  early  in  the 
morning. 

Importance  of  Drinking  Water.  —  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant things  about  caring  for  hens  is  to  see  that  they 
always  have  plenty  of  clean,  fresh  drinking  water  before 
them.  More  than  65  per  cent  of  the  egg  is  water.  Water 
also  makes  up  55  per  cent  of  the  hen's  body.  Unless  a  hen 
has  water  she  cannot  produce  eggs,  nor  can  she  properly 
digest  food.  Many  a  hen,  otherwise  well  fed,  fails  to  lay 
because  she  is  compelled  to  go  without  sufficient  water. 
When  laying  freely,  a  flock  of  five  hundred  hens  will  re- 
quire from  forty  to  eighty  quarts  of  water  per  day.  The 
warmer  the  weather,  the  more  water  required.  The  more 
eggs  that  are  laid  the  more  water  is  required.  Small  eggs 
usually  result  from  a  shortage  of  drinking  water  or  from 
the  fact  that  the  water  is  so  cold  that  the  hens  cannot 
drink  their  usual  amount. 


FEEDING  HENS       ■  295 

Mineral  Matter  Necessary.  —  Laying  hens  should  have 
more  mineral  matter  than  is  furnished  in  ordinary  foods. 
For  this  reason  it  is  important  that  crushed  oyster  shells 
be  supplied  in  abundant  quantities.  The  desire  for  mineral 
matter  in  some  form  frequently  causes  the  hen  to  eat  her 
own  eggs.  A  flock  of  hens  may  be  broken  from  this  habit 
by  scattering  a  few  china  eggs  on  the  floor. 

Grit  Essential.  —  Although  on  most  farms  there  is  an 
abundance  of  small  bits  of  limestone  or  gravel  about  the 
yards,  still  grit  should  be  supplied  artificially  in  the  form 
of  crushed  quartz,  or  "  chit."  It  must  not  be  forgotten 
that  the  only  teeth  the  hen  has  are  those  given  to  her  in 
the  form  of  grit. 

Inducing  Hens  to  Eat.  —  The  poultryman's  problem  is 
to  induce  the  hen  to  eat  an  abundance  of  raw  material  so 
that  she  can  turn  out  a  larger  quantity  of  manufactured 
product,  rather  than  to  see  how  small  an  amount  of  food 
he  can  keep  her  on. 

Hens  will  eat  when  the  attendant  is  around  and  makes 
pretense  of  scattering  grain  in  the  litter.  They  have  a 
curiosity  which  causes  them  to  peck  at  everything  brought 
into  the  room,  and  the  more  things  that  are  brought  in, 
the  better  the  chances  are  that  they  will  eat.  A  good 
many  times  the  quantity  of  grain  scattered  at  the  noon 
feeding  is  negligible,  but  the  mere  pretense  of  scattering 
grain  starts  the  hens  to  scratching  and  singing,  a  condition 
most  conducive  to  egg  production.  It  has  been  said,  and 
truthfully,  that  the  '^  singing  hen  is  the  laying  hen." 

Variety  Desirable.  —  Although  standard  mixtures  should 
be  used,  feeding  should  not  be  confined  to  any  particular 
mixture  nor  to  any  special  ingredients.  An  effort  should 
be  made   always   to   have   the   food   palatable   and   the 


296  CARE  OF  LAYING  HENS 

ration  of  the  right  proportion,  but  no  opportunity  should 
be  lost  to  take  advantage  of  seasonable  fluctuations  in  the 
market  price  of  poultry  food  products.  If  the  price  of  corn 
is  proportionately  much  lower  than  that  of  wheat,  then  corn 
should  be  used  in  greater  quantity  and  the  ration  balanced 
by  using  larger  proportions  of  by-products  in  the  form  of 
bran,  wheat  middlings,  oil  meal,  and  the  like.  However, 
the  general  principles  underlying  the  compounding  of  a 
good  ration  for  farm  animals  should  not  be  lost  sight  of. 

Green  Cut  Bone. — When  fresh  and  untainted,  green 
cut  bone  can  be  fed  with  safety  and  profit  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  half  ounce  daily  or  one  ounce  every  other  day 
per  hen.  When  tainted  or  when  fed  in  too  large  quan- 
tities it  may  cause  diarrhoea,  oviduct  eversion,  or  poisoning. 

Time  to  Feed  Different  Ingredients.  —  The  time  to  feed 
whole  grain  is  the  first  thing  in  the  morning  and  the  last 
thing  at  night,  and  in  some  cases  for  the  noon  meal. 

If  a  wet  mash  is  fed,  it  should  never  be  given  before  ten 
o'clock  and  preferably  at  noon.  The  physiological  reasons 
for  the  above  statements  are  clear :  grain  in  the  morning 
induces  exercise ;  the  mash  fed  in  the  middle  forenoon  is  a 
stimulant.  Bran  has  a  laxative  effect,  is  a  regulator  and 
makes  a  valuable  addition  to  finely  ground  foods  as  it  gives 
them  bulk  and  porosity,  making  it  easier  for  the  digestive 
fluids  to  permeate  the  mash,  thus  preventing  poor  diges- 
tion and  consequent  poisoning  and  general  ill  health. 

Cooking  and  Grinding  Poultry  Foods.  —  It  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  cooking  poultry  feeds  makes  them  more 
digestible,  just  as  cooking  food  for  human  consumption  does. 
This  holds  true  with  starch  foods  better  than  with  protein 
foods.  The  digestion  of  ground  feed  requires  less  energy 
and  takes  place  much  more  rapidly  than  the  digestion  of 


STANDARD  RATIONS  297 

unground  feeds.  By  grinding  grain  in  a  mill  we  save  the 
fowl  the  necessity  of  doing  the  grinding.  However,  this 
practice  cannot  be  continued  indefinitely ;  if  it  were,  the 
fowls  would  not  get  sufficient  internal  exercise  to  keep  them 
in  the  best  of  condition. 

Standard  Rations 

20  pounds  kaffir  corn 

20  pounds  wheat 

30  pounds  cracked  corn 

15  pounds  oats 

10  pounds  barley 

5  pounds  sunflower  seed 

This  ration  may  be  used  as  a  standard  grain  ration  at 
all  seasons  of  the  year.  Its  value  is  not  lessened  by  in- 
creasing or  decreasing  the  amount  of  kaffir  corn  and  by 
decreasing  or  increasing  the  amount  of  cracked  corn  ac- 
cordingly. These  two  feed  stuffs  can  be  used  interchange- 
ably, or  the  amount  of  corn  may  be  reduced  and  the 
amount  of  wheat  increased  so  that  frequently  poultrymen 
may  feed  the  following  ration : 

60  pounds  wheat 
30  pounds  corn 
10  pounds  oats 

A  meal  mixture  for  fattening  broilers  may  be  made  up 
as  follows  :  20  pounds  corn  meal 

20  pounds  wheat  middlings 
20  pounds  ground  oats 

6  pounds  meat  scrap 

This  should  be  mixed  with  buttermilk  to  a  thin  batter 
and  fed  twice  daily. 


298  CARE  OF  LAYING  HENS 

Special  Care  Necessary.  —  No  pains  should  be  spared  to 
keep  the  hens  comfortable  and  happy.  During  the  molt- 
ing season  and  on  days  when  it  is  cold  or  damp  and  the 
hen's  appetite  is  not  likely  to  be  keen,  if  the  attendant  will 
bring  to  her  in  the  middle  of  the  forenoon  and  the  middle 
of  the  afternoon  a  small  amount  of  hot  savory  mash,  she 
will  welcome  it  and  eat  it  with  such  avidity  that  the  whole 
room  will  for  a  moment  be  transformed  into  conditions  of 
springtime.  Such  singing  and  scratching  will  be  set  up  as 
could  be  duplicated  naturally  only  in  the  spring  of  the  year. 
This  hot  mash  in  winter  not  only  warms  the  hen  for  the 
moment,  but  if  composed  of  the  right  ingredients  will  so 
stimulate  her  appetite  and  the  flow  of  digestive  fluids  that 
she  can  be  made  to  eat  a  large  amount  of  other  foods  and 
egg  production  will  be  increased  correspondingly. 

In  feeding  a  hot  wet  mash  no  attempt  should  be  made 
to  satisfy  thoroughly  the  hen's  appetite.  Best  results  are 
realized  when  only  enough  is  used  to  stimulate  her  appetite 
so  that  she  will  eat  more  of  every  kind  of  food.  Only  so 
much  should  be  given  at  one  time  as  will  be  eagerly 
eaten. 

Inducing  Molting.  —  It  is  not  best  to  induce  a  molt, 
though  this  can  be  done  by  feeding  short  rations  for  a  time 
and  then  feeding  heavily  on  foods  rich  in  protein  and  min- 
eral salts.  The  best  practice  is  to  endeavor  to  get  all  the 
eggs  it  is  possible  to  obtain  without  injury,  keeping  care- 
ful watch  to  know  just  when  molting  begins.  When  molt- 
ing has  begun  a  gradual  change  in  the  kinds  of  foods  should 
be  made  to  hasten  the  molt  and  make  it  uniform  throughout 
the  flock.  The  amount  of  protein  should  be  increased  by 
adding  linseed  meal  or  meat,  or  by  increasing  the  amount 
of  milk  or  buttermilk  fed.     Too  much  buttermilk,  or  pro- 


GREEN  FOODS  AND   GRAIN  299 

tein  in   any   form,   will   cause  diarrhoea,   and  such  foods 
should  be  fed  with  care. 

Kinds  of  Green  Foods.  —  Perhaps  one  of  the  best  forms 
of  green  food  for  laying  hens  is  stock  beets.  Other  suc- 
culent feeds  that  may  be  given  with  good  results  are  enumer- 
ated in  the  order  of  their  desirableness :  cabbage,  turnips, 
potatoes,  apples.  Properly  cured  clover  or  alfalfa  swollen 
by  soaking  equals  or  exceeds  stock  beets,  but  the  trouble 
of  preparation  is  sometimes  an  objection. 

Sprouted  oats  also  make  good  green  food,  but  require 
some  practice  for  preparation.  Which  of  these  the  poul- 
tryman  uses  should  be  decided  entirely  by  availability 
and  cheapness.  Alfalfa  is  frequently  used  on  account  of 
its  being  an  easy  matter  to  store  a  sufficient  supply  with- 
out fear  of  deterioration. 

Feeding  the  Range  Stock.  —  No  particular  effort  should 
be  made  to  force  the  young  stock  on  the  range  other  than 
to  keep  them  growing  rapidly.  As  a  rule  they  should  be 
given  grain  of  the  standard  mixture  fed  to  the  hens,  three 
times  daily.  Occasionally  wet  or  dry  mash  should  be  fed 
at  noon  for  variety.  Under  most  favorable  conditions  the 
ranges  are  sufficiently  suppHed  with  running  water,  and 
furnish  an  abundance  of  grit  or  small  stone. 

When  their  combs  begin  to  redden  and  develop,  the  pul- 
lets should  be  taken  to  the  laying  houses  and  made  com- 
fortable before  cold  weather  begins.  They  should  then  be 
fed  for  early  and  continuous  egg  production. 

Essential  Points  of  a  Good  Ration.  —  According  to  an 
eminent  authority  ''  the  greatest  profit  is  realized  when  an 
abundance  of  food  best  suited  to  produce  the  greatest  vigor 
of  the  reproductive  system  is  available  to  the  hens."  The 
essential  points  of  a  good  ration  for  fowls  are  that : 


300  CARE  OF  LAYING  HENS 

(a)  It  should  be  composed  of  foods  every  one  of  which 
the  fowls  like. 

(b)  It  should  contain  a  sufficient  quantity  of  digestible 
nutrients  to  supply  the  needs  of  rapid  growth  and  large 
production. 

(c)  It  should  have  enough  bulk  to  enable  the  diges- 
tive secretion  to  act  quickly  upon  it. 

(d)  It  should  not  contain  an  excess  of  indigestible 
fiber  (such  as  oat  hulls,  corn  bran,  and  alfalfa  stems). 

(e)  A  certain  proportion  of  the  ration  should  be  of 
whole  grain  in  order  to  provide  muscular  activity  of  the 
digestive  organs.  About  one  third  of  the  ration  should  be 
of  soft  ground  food  for  the  purpose  of  providing  quickly 
available  nutrients  to  supply  the  immediate  demand  of 
rapid  growth  or  heavy  continuous  egg  yield. 

(/")  A  good  variety  of  food  must  be  provided,  in  which 
are  included  grain,  green  food,  meat,  and  mineral  matter. 

(g)  The  foods  in  the  ration  should  not  have  an  un- 
desirable effect  upon  the  color  or  flavor  of  the  product. 
Onions,  barnyard  manure,  and  carrion  flavor  an  egg.  When 
the  fowl  drinks  from  pools  about  the  barnyard  the  yolk  of 
the  egg  is  given  an  undesirable  reddish  color. 

(h)  The  ration  must  provide  the  two  classes  of  food 
nutrients,  protein  and  carbohydrates,  in  such  proportions 
that  they  will  supply  the  daily  needs  of  the  fowl's  system ; 
provide  sufficient  and  digestible  protein  to  repair  the 
wasted  tissue  with  new  growth,  and  produce  eggs ;  and 
provide  the  proper  amount  of  digestible  carbohydrate  food 
(starch,  sugar,  and  fat)  to  furnish  heat,  energy,  and  lay  on 
a  Httle  surplus  fuel  in  the  form  of  fat. 

Shall  the  Poultryman  Raise  his  Feed  ?  —  There  seems  to 
be  some  doubt  as  to  whether  persons  engaged  in  special 


DUST  BATHS  301 

poultry  fanning  should  or  should  not  raise  their  feed.  If 
one  is  sufficiently  well  versed  in  practice  and  theory  to 
operate  a  poultry  plant  he  can  spend  all  of  his  time  to 
better  advantage  in  raising  poultry  than  in  raising  feed  for 
poultry.  This,  however,  does  not  mean  that  areas  should 
not  be  reserved  for  the  production  of  green  feeds.  Nor  does 
it  mean  that  small  areas  should  not  be  cultivated  for  the 
purpose  of  renovating  the  soil  and  at  the  same  time  growing 
such  crops  as  can  well  be  used  as  forage  for  horses  or  for 
feeding  the  hens. 

Dust  Baths.  —  The  primary  function  of  a  dust  bath  is 
to  gratify  the  hen's  instinctive  desire  to  dust ;  to  keep  her 
contented  and  comfortable.  A  secondary  purpose,  the 
value  of  which  has  been  very  much  overrated,  is  to  rid  the 
hen's  body  of  Hce. 

Careful  observation  and  close  investigation  have  estab- 
lished the  following  points : 

First,  the  indoor  dust  bath,  which  has  its  greatest  value 
in  allowing  the  hen  to  dust  in  cold  weather,  when  the 
ground  is  covered  with  snow,  is  generally  so  cold  that  the 
hen  .will  not  use  it. 

Second,  when  it  is  warm  enough  for  her  to  use  it,  the  air 
of  the  room  becomes  so  dusty  that  it  is  uncomfortable  for 
the  attendant  and  injurious  to  all  the  flock. 

Third,  upon  microscopical  examination  of  the  throat 
mucus  in  some  cases  of  pneumonia,  it  has  been  found  that 
the  source  of  inflammation  was  due  to  dust  particles  im- 
bedded in  the  mucus  membrane. 

Fourth,  the  hen's  instinctive  desire  for  wallowing  or 
dusting  is  apparently  just  as  thoroughly  gratified  by  wal- 
lowing in  the  litter  thrown  upon  the  floor  as  it  is  in  a 
specially  devised  dust  box. 


302  CARE  OF  LAYING  HENS 

Fifth,  hens  provided  with  dust  baths  are  apparently  as 
much  infested  with  Hce  as  hens  not  so  provided. 

Preventing  Poultry  Diseases.  —  The  old  maxim  that 
"  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure  " 
is  a  splendid  guide  for  the  poultryman.  It  is  far  better 
to  prevent  disease  than  to  attempt  to  cure  it.  Sanitation 
is  the  one  preventive.  The  poultry  house,  the  drinking 
vessels,  and  the  food  containers  should  be  kept  clean.  The 
drinking  water  should  be  made  antiseptic  by  the  addition 
of  potassium  permanganate  in  the  proportion  of  one  tea- 
spoonful  to  each  ten-quart  pail  of  drinking  water,  or  iron 
sulphate  at  the  rate  of  one  tablespoonful  of  crystals  to  a 
gallon  of  water.  Mature  fowls  should  be  given  a  small 
dose  of  Epsom  salts  in  a  wet  mash  every  two  or  three 
weeks  in  the  proportion  of  about  five  ounces  to  each  one 
hundred  hens. 

One  should  not  wait  until  the  spread  of  disease  necessi- 
tates disinfection,  but  should  disinfect  regularly.  It  is  a 
good  practice  to  apply  to  all  poultry  buildings  a  heavy 
coat  of  whitewash  once  a  year,  and  to  spray  the  roosts, 
ceiling,  and  walls  with  a  good  strong  disinfecting  solution 
two  or  three  times  a  year.  The  perches,  nests,  and  crevices 
about  the  dropping  board  should  be  sprayed  more  frequently. 

When  a  sick  fowl  is  found  in  one  of  the  pens  it  is,  as  a 
rule,  too  late  to  attempt  to  cure  that  fowl.  But  it  is  the 
signal  to  begin  extraordinary  methods  of  cleaning,  so  that 
other  fowls  will  not  contract  disease.  The  litter  should 
be  removed,  the  floor  thoroughly  cleaned,  all  the  dust  on 
the  walls  and  crevices  washed  down,  and  then  the  walls 
and  ceiling  should  be  thoroughly  disinfected. 

Treatment  of  Infectious  Poultry  Diseases.  —  Infectious 
diseases  may  be  prevented  by  cleanliness  and  proper  sani- 


TO  CONTROL  LICE  AND  MITES  303 

tation.  Roup,  chicken  pox,  white  diarrhoea,  cholera,  con- 
junctivitis, and  vent  gleet  are  the  most  common  diseases 
of  this  class.  While  the  symptoms  for  each  of  these 
are  peculiar  to  the  disease  itself,  the  treatment  is  common. 
Isolate  diseased  fowls,  kill,  and  burn  their  carcasses.  In 
case  of  large  losses,  dispose  of  all  fowls  and  start  anew  on  an 
uninfected  part  of  the  farm.  Heavily  coat  the  surface  of 
the  old  yards  with  air-slaked  lime  and  plow  under.  Sow 
some  rank-growing  crop.  Thoroughly  disinfect  and 
whitewash  all  houses,  coops,  and  equipment. 

Poultry  Lice  and  Mites.  —  Body  hce  on  poultry  need 
not  give  the  poultryman  any  serious  concern,  for  despite 
all  he  can  do  there  are  likely  to  be  a  few  on  his  hens.  They 
can  be  partially  removed  by  dusting  the  hens  thoroughly 
with  an  insect  powder.  Repeat  the  dusting  in  ten  days. 
If  this  is  properly  done  it  should  give  several  months' 
freedom  from  the  pest.  The  Httle  red  mite  which  attacks 
the  hens  when  on  the  nest  or  roost  is  a  very  real  enemy 
of  the  poultryman,  but  it  can  be  very  easily  prevented  and 
destroyed  by  simple  and  regularly  executed  disinfecting 
measures.  Simple,  cheap,  and  effective  lice  and  mite 
killers  are  made  as  follows : 

Liquid  Lice  and  Mite  Killer  —  3  quarts  of  kerosene  to 
I  quart  crude  carbolic  acid. 

Lice  Powder  —  3  quarts  gasoline,  i  quart  crude  carbohc 
acid ;  sufficient  plaster  of  Paris  to  absorb  thoroughly  the 
four  parts  of  liquid.  Spread  the  mixture  on  heavy  paper 
until  all  liquid  has  evaporated.  Rub  it  through  a  screen 
or  fine  flour  sifter,  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Use  of  Lice  and  Mite  Killer.  —  For  body  lice,  paint  the 
perches  with  the  hquid  just  before  roosting  time ;  or  place 
a  piece  of  brown  paper  thoroughly   saturated  with  this 


304  CARE  OF  LAYING  HENS 

liquid  in  the  bottom  of  a  tight  box  and  confine  the  sitting 
hen  in  the  box  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  When  this 
method  is  used  the  box  should  be  covered  with  a  bag, 
through  which  a  hole  is  made  for  the  hen's  head,  to  pre- 
vent suffocation. 

For  mites,  apply  the  liquid  solution  with  a  paint  brush 
to  the  perches,  roosts,  dropping  boards,  and  nests,  and 
spray  into  all  the  corners  and  cracks  of  the  house.  One  or 
two  appHcations  will  entirely  eradicate  the  worst  infesta- 
tion of  vermin. 

The  Hquid  has  also  been  used  with  splendid  success  in 
painting  the  floors  of  hen  houses  and  brooders,  to  eradicate 
disease. 

Use  of  Lice  Powder.  —  The  powder  is  used  on  sitting 
hens  or  little  chicks  and  will  cause  the  lice  to  drop  off 
dead  almost  instantly.  The  proper  method  of  appHcation 
is  to  hold  the  fowl  over  the  lap  by  the  feet  and  dust  the 
powder  well  down  through  the  feathers,  using  a  tin  can 
similar  to  a  salt  shaker.  The  powder  can  be  collected  and 
used  repeatedly. 

Disinfectants.  —  Crude  carbolic  acid,  crude  creoline,  or 
other  cleansing  preparations  constitute  cheap  and  effective 
disinfectants.  Both  of  these  mix  readily  with  water  in 
any  desired  proportion  and  pass  through  a  spray  nozzle 
without  clogging. 

Wherever  the  hands  are  liable  to  come  in  contact  with 
the  solution  do  not  use  stronger  than  2  per  cent.  Where 
the  disinfectant  is  to  be  applied  with  a  brush  or  spray 
pump,  a  5  to  10  per  cent  solution  may  be  used.  The  fol- 
lowing table  for  preparing  solutions  of  a  given  strength 
is  sufficiently  accurate  to  be  safe  and  effective  for  all 
ordinary  purposes. 


EXERCISES 


305 


Table  for  Making  Solutions  of  Various  Strengths 

TO   MAKE    stock   SOLUTION  —  STRENGTH    10% 
WATER  DISINFECTANT 

5  quarts  i  pint 


2i  gals. 

I  quart 

5  gals. 

2  quarts 

STRENGTH 

WATER 

STOCK   SOLUTION 

5% 

I  part 

I  part 

2i% 

3  parts 

I  part 

1% 

9  parts 

I  part 

Table  for  Mixing  Small  Amounts 

strength  water  disinfectant 

1%  I  pint  I  teaspoonful 

2%  I  pint  2  teaspoonfuls 

5%  I  pint  5  teaspoonfuls 


EXERCISES 

1 .  What  are  the  chief  reasons  for  feeding  poultry  three  times 
daily  ? 

2.  Of  what  should  an  egg-producing  ration  be  composed,  and 
why? 

3.  What  is  the  purpose  of  the  deep  litter  method  of  feeding? 

4.  Compound  a  good  ration  for  laying  hens  not  outlined  in 
the  text. 

5.  Give  reasons  for  each  ingredient  in  the  above  ration. 

6.  What  is  the  function  of  each  of  the  following  ingredients 
in  a  poultry  ration,  —  grit,  lime,  water,  green  food,  animal 
food,  and  wet  mash? 

7.  Why  is  sanitation  the  first  requisite  in  the  control  of 
poultry  diseases? 

T.    AND   L.    ANIMAL   HUSB.  —  20 


3o6  CARE  OF  LAYING  HENS 

8.  What  are  some  good  disinfectants  to  use  around  the 
poultry  plant? 

9.  Is  it  better  to  burn  or  to  bury  fowls  dead  from  disease? 
Why? 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  What  poultry  rations  are  used  on  the  home  farm?  Do 
they  supply  all  the  necessary  ingredients  for  meat  or  egg  pro- 
duction, as  the  case  may  be?  If  not,  try  to  arrange  for  new 
and  better  rations. 

2.  By  means  of  accurate  records  compare  the  old  ration  with 
the  new,  either  for  meat  or  egg  production.  Also  compare  cost 
of  each  and  see  which  is  most  efficient. 

3.  Disinfect  the  home  poultry  house  and  yards,  using  plan 
and  mixtures  given  in  this  chapter. 


CHAPTER   XXII 
TYPES   AND   BREEDS   OF   CHICKENS 

Types  of  Chickens.  —  Poultrymen  recognize  two  distinct 
types  among  hens,  —  the  egg  type  and  the  meat  type.  In  the 
nervous,  rangy  hen  is  found  the  egg  type  ;  in  her  plumper, 
less  active  sister,  the  meat  type.  Heavy  layers  have  the 
bodies  nicely  placed  on  longer,  trimmer  legs  than  the  meat 
type,  their  combs  are  larger,  their  bodies  longer,  and  their 
pelvic  arches  broader.  In  fact,  the  two  types  are  as  truly 
distinct  as  the  race  horse  and  the  draft  horse,  or  the  dairy 
cow  and  the  beef  animal. 

Breeds  of  Chickens.  —  The  most  important  breeds  of 
chickens  fall  into  three  groups,  based  on  their  utility  value 
as  follows :  Egg  Breeds,  Meat  Breeds,  General  Purpose 
Breeds. 

The  Egg  Breeds.  —  As  suggested  by  the  name,  the  egg 
breeds  are  valued  primarily  for  egg  production,  though  of 
late  years  the  members  of  this  group  have  won  first  place 
as  producers  of  squab  broilers.  They  are  very  precocious, 
frequently  coming  into  laying  at  four  and  one  half  months, 
though  the  reasonable  expectation  of  the  keepers  of  this 
group  is  that  the  majority  of  the  pullets  will  mature  at  five 
and  one  half  months.  These  breeds  constitute  the  Mediter- 
ranean group.  The  most  popular  members  of  this  group 
are  the  Leghorns  and  the  Anconas. 

307 


3o8  TYPES  AND   BREEDS  OF   CHICKENS 


Fig.  io6.  —  White  Orpingtons. 

Meat  Breeds.  —  This  group  comprises  only  the  Asiatic 
class,  though  contrary  to  theory  more  meat  poultry  is  pro- 
duced from  the  general  purpose  breeds  than  from  the  spe- 
cial meat  breeds.  This  condition  is  probably  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  meat  breeds  are  not  so  precocious  as  the  general 
purpose  breeds  and  present  the  difficulty  of  fewer  eggs  and 
hence  fewer  chicks.  The  Cochins,  Langshans,  and  Brah- 
mas  constitute  this  group. 

General  Purpose  Breeds.  —  This  group  comprises  the 
American  class,  the  English  class,  and  the  French  class,  and 
as  indicated  by  the  group  name  are  valued  for  their  dual 
purpose.  They  produce  a  reasonable  number  of  eggs  and 
are  large  enough  for  use  as  meat  poultry.  The  English 
breeds  of  this  group  were  originally  valued  chiefly  for 
meat  production,  but  the  breed  shape  has  been  slightly 
changed  by  environment  until  in  America  they  are  regu- 
larly classed  as  general  purpose  fowls.  The  most  popular 
members  of  this  group  are  the  Plymouth  Rocks,  Rhode 
Island  Reds,  Wyandottes,  and  Orpingtons. 


SCORE   CARD 


309 


A  list  of  the  general  purpose  breeds  is  as  follows : 
Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Javas,  Dominiques,  Rhode 
Island  Reds,  Buckeyes,  Dorkings,  Redcaps,  Orpingtons, 
and  Houdans. 

Poultry  Judging.  —  Poultry  judging  is  taught  by  men- 
tally comparing  an  individual  with  the  ideal  for  that  variety 
and  entering  the  demerits  in  the  schedule  of  points  on  a 
score  card  authorized  by  the  American  Poultry  Association. 

SCORE   CARD    FOR  JUDGING   POULTRY 

With  the  exception  of  "  Remarks  "  column,  this  card  is  arranged  to 
conform  to  the  card  adopted  by  the  American  Poultry  Association.  Direc- 
tions for  the  use  of  this  score  card  are  given  in  "  The  American  Stand- 
ard of  Perfection." 

Date 

Exhibitor 

Breed Sex 

Entry No.  Band Weight 


Symmetry 


Weight 


Siv 


Condition 


Comb 


Head 


Shape 


Color 


Remarks 


Undeveloped,  Rangy,  Blocky,  Carriage 


Under  or  Over 


Large  or  Small 


Health,  Dirty,  Broken  or  Roughed  Plumage,  Scaly  Legs 
Frosted,  Injured,  Wild 


Large,   Small,  Serrations,  Thumbmark,  Coarse,  Twisted 


Hollow    Center,    Smooth,    Spike,    Large,    Small,    Tele- 
scoped, Lopped 


Long,  Short,  Wide,  Narrow,  Flat,  Snaky,  or  Gamey 
Face  Pale,  Red,  White,  Yellow,  Foreign  Color 


Beak 


Long,  Short,  Straight,  Curved,  Injured 


Light,  Dark,  Striped 


Large,  Small,  Injured,  One  Missing 

Eves 

Light  Colored,  Not  Matching,  Greenish,  Golden 

i 
1 

Large,  Small,  Irregular,  Injured,  Frosted,  Wrinkled 

Lobes 

Red,  White,  Yellow,  Creamy 

1 

3IO 


TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF   CHICKENS 


Shape 

Color 

Remarks 

Large,  Small,  Irregular,  Long,  Injured,  Frosted 

Wattles         1 

_ 

Wrinkled,  Folded 

Long,  Short,  Undeveloped,  Broken  Plumage 

Neck 

L'^*?^:  .  ^^''i^  ^"ff-  I^ed,  White,  Undercolor,  Surface, 
Tickmg,  Mealy 

Carried  High,  Low,  Broken  or  Missing  Feathers,  Un- 
developed 

Wings 

H^^'  P^cu  ?Hff'  Bows,  Flights,  Black,  White,  Ticking. 
Mealy,  Shafting 

Long,   Short,   Narrow,   Flat,   Curved,   Cushion,   Plumage 

Back 

Light,  Dark  Buff,  Red,  White,  Undercolor,  Surface, 
Mealy,  Shafting 

High,  Low,  Pinched,  Broken,  Maintail,  Sickles,  Long, 
Short 

Tail 



Light,  Dark  Buff,  Black,  White,  Ticking,  Surface, 
Undercolor 

Und»veloned,  Flat,  Narrow,  Crooked  Keel,  Low 

Breast           j 

Light,  Dark  Buff,  Under,  Surface,  Mealy,  Shafting 

Body  and 

Long,  Short,  Low,  Too  Deep.  Shallow,  Fat 

Fluff 

— 

Light,  Dark  Buff,  Under.  Surface,  Mealy.  Shafting 

Long,  Short,  Bowed,  Knock-kneed,  Scaly,  Injured, 
Down 

Legs 

Light.  Faded,  Spur,  Missing,  Yellow 

Long.  Short,  Crooked,  Nails,  Injured,  Down 

Toes 

Faded,  Light,  Yellow 

Crest  and     ' 
Beard  ^      1 

Sharpness 
of  Feather  2 

1 

Outs 

! 

SCORE 

Judge 

Secretary 

The  placing  of  awards  in  the  show  room  at  present  is 
largely  done  by  first  scoring  the  birds  according  to  the  score 
card  system,  and  then  comparing  the  cards,  giving  the 

*  Applies  to  crested  breeds. 

^  Applies  to  Games  and  Game  Bantams. 


RULES   FOR  JUDGING  311 

awards  to  the  birds  receiving  the  highest  score.  However, 
the  direct  comparison  system  of  judging  is  coming  into 
general  use,  especially  in  the  largest  and  best  exhibitions 
of  the  country. 

Breed  Requirements.  —  Before  judging  the  birds  either 
by  the  score  card  system  or  by  direct  comparison  it  is  neces- 
sary to  know  the  requirements  of  conformation,  color, 
feather  markings,  and  carriage  of  each  variety.  It  is  also 
necessary  to  know  what  the  customary  defects  are  for  each 
variety.  The  beginner  should  consult  the  various  breed 
books  and  should  use  a  score  card.  This  card  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  aiding  the  judge  to  keep  in  mind  the 
several  defects  he  should  look  for  in  each  breed  and  of 
furnishing  to  the  owner  a  record  of  the  judge's  reasons 
for  putting  the  bird  in  any  particular  section. 

Rules  for  Judging.  —  Some  of  the  rules  which  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  beginner  in  poultry  judging  to  fix  in  his  mind 
are : 

a.  That  place  of  origin,  temperament,  and  purpose 
make  the  class. 

h.     That  shape  and  size  make  the  breed. 

c.  That  color  and  marking  of  feathers  and  form  of  comb 
make  the  variety. 

The  four  principal  class  groups  into  which  all  standard 
varieties  of  poultry  are  divided,  are  as  follows : 

Group  I.       The  Mediterranean  class. 

Group  11.     The  American,  English,  and  French  classes. 

Group  III.    The  Asiatic  class. 

Group  IV.    The  Oriental  and  Exhibition  classes. 

The  Mediterranean  Class.  —  It  is  supposed  that  this 
class  originated  in  Southern  Europe  along  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea. 


312 


TYPES  AND   BREEDS  OF   CHICKENS 


MOTTLED  j^-^ 


BARRED    .^,^  *^^,  ^^ 


m- 


■M, 


W,^i^  ■■^r  .^^-^ 


SPANGLED 


ii^h^y,M 


Fig.  107.  —  Different  feather  markings. 


EGG  BREEDS  313 

Members  of  this  group  are  of  nervous,  active  tempera- 
ment ;  non-sitters ;  good  foragers,  with  close-feathered 
bodies  ;  unfeathered  legs  ;  medium  to  large  comb  and  head 
furnishings  ;  extremely  precocious.  All  breeds  of  this  group 
lay  large  eggs  with  chalk-white  shell. 

They  are  small  to  medium  in  size,  set  well  up  on  clean 
legs,  and  in  outUne  are  an  oblong  oval  with  small  end 
toward  the  shoulders.  The  several  breeds  of  this  group  are 
distinguished  by  shape  of  back  and  carriage  of  tail. 

The  Mediterranean  Class  includes  five  breeds,  as  follows  : 

I.  Leghorns,  2.  Minorcas,  3.  Spanish,  4.  Blue  Andalu- 
sians,  5.  Anconas.  These  are  the  so-called  egg  breeds. 
The  varieties  of  all  breeds  in  this  group  have  white  ear 
lobes.  The  breeds  may  be  distinguished  one  from  the  other 
by  comparison  of  (a)  size,  (b)  comb,  (c)  back,  (d)  tail. 

The  varieties  of  the  several  breeds  in  this  group  are  dis- 
tinguished one  from  the  other  either  by  shape  of  comb  or 
feather  color  or  feather  marking. 

Example  of  classification  by  above  method  : 

Group :   I. 

Class :  Mediterranean,  as  shown  by  sprightly  carriage, 
nervous  temperament,  and  white  ear  lobes. 

Breed :  Leghorn,  as  shown  by  oval  shape  of  body  when 
viewed  from  any  direction.  Small  to  medium  size  body. 
Distinguished  from  Minorcas  by  shape  of  back  and  shape  of 
comb  ;  and  from  Anconas  by  individuality  of  the  Ancona 
plumage. 

Varieties :  Rose  Comb  White  Leghorns  are  readily  dis- 
tinguished from  Single  Comb  White  Leghorns  by  their  dif- 
ferent forms  of  comb,  and  the  Single  Comb  Brown,  Buff, 
and  White  varieties  of  Leghorns  can  readily  be  distinguished 
by  color  and  marking  of  their  plumage. 


14  TYPES  AND   BREEDS   OF   CHICKENS 


Rose  Comb  White  Leghorns 


Mottled  Anconas 


Single  Comb  White  Leghorns 


Rose  Comb  Brown  Leghorns 


Single  Comb  liufi  Leghorns  Rose  Comb  Black  Minorcas 

Fig.  io8.  —  Types  of  chickens  among  the  egg  breeds. 


DUAL  PURPOSE  BREEDS  315 

The  American,  English,  and  French  Classes.  —  The 
members  of  this  group  are  active  but  not  nervous;  are 
fair  to  good  foragers;  feathered  more  loosely  than  the 
breeds  of  Group  I ;  good  to  excellent  sitters  and  mothers ; 
are  not  so  precocious  as  Group  I,  seldom  reaching  maturity 
before  six  to  seven  months.     As  a  group  they  are  average  to 


Fig.  109.  —  A  White  Leghorn. 

good  layers  of  fair-sized  brown-shelled  eggs,  though  some 
individuals  of  highly  specialized  strains  have  made  wonder- 
ful egg  records.  The  members  of  this  group  originated  in 
either  America,  England,  or  France,  but  in  all  cases  have 
been  thoroughly  Americanized. 

The  breeds  of  this  group,  already  enumerated  under 
dual  purpose  breeds,  are  of  medium  size  and  stockily  built. 
The  shapes  of  the  several  breeds  in  this  group  when  viewed 
from  the  side  vary  from  almost  round  to  rectangular,  and 


3i6 


TYPES  AND   BREEDS  OF   CHICKENS 


this  variation  in  body  shape  serves  as  one  of  the  best  in- 
dexes to  the  several  breeds. 

The  several  varieties  of  each  breed  are  distinguished  one 
from  the  other  by  shape  of  comb  or  color  of  feathers.  All 
of  this  group  have  red  ear  lobes.  Nearly  all  members  of 
the  French  class  have  five  toes  ;  this  is  also  true  of  the  Eng- 


Fig.  no.  — A  White  Plymouth  Rock. 

lish  class,  the  Orpingtons  however  being  a  notable  excep- 
tion.    Members  of  the  American  class  have  four  toes. 

The  Asiatics.  —  Members  of  this  group  are  of  sluggish, 
phlegmatic  temperament,  with  strong  predisposition  to 
broodiness,  though  their  extreme  size  and  heavily  feathered 
legs  and  toes  make  them  undesirable  sitters  or  mothers. 
They  are  poor  foragers  and  indifferent  layers.  They  lay 
medium  to  large-sized  eggs  with  brown  shells.  They  are 
not  precocious,  seldom  reaching  maturity  before  seven 
and  a  half  to  eight  months.     As  indicated  by  their  class 


EXHIBITION  CLASSES  317 

name,  it  is  believed  that  the  different  members  of  this 
group  originated  from  stock  imported  from  Asia. 

This  group  comprises  the  Brahma,  Cochin,  and  Langshan, 
—  the  largest  breeds  of  fowls.  One  of  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristics  of  the  group  is  the  feathered  legs.  The 
three  breeds  of  the  group  can  be  distinguished  one  from  the 


Fig.  III.  —  A  Black  Langshan. 

other  by  shape  of  back.  Other  distinguishing  characteris- 
tics are  form  of  comb,  length  of  leg,  and  feathering  of  legs 
and  toes. 

The  varieties  of  these  breeds  are  distinguished  one  from 
the  other  by  color  of  feather. 

The  Oriental  and  Exhibition  Classes.  —  For  the  most 
part  individuals  of  this  group  are  very  small,  of  various 
temperaments  and  sources  of  origin.  However,  the  group- 
ing is  based  on  the  fact  that  all  are  bred  for  their  exhibition 
value  on  account  of  fancy  color  or  feather  marking.     The 


3i8  TYPES  AND  BREEDS  OF  CHICKENS 


Rose  comb 


Pea  comb  Strawberry  comb 

Fig.  112.  —  Types  of  combs. 

Cornish,  Game,  Malay,  Sumatra,  and  the  several  Bantam 
breeds  belong  to  this  group.  In  addition  to  the  above 
groups  there  are  the  Hamburg,  Polish,  and  several  other 
miscellaneous  breeds. 

The  person  learning  poultry  judging  should  study  the  out- 
line on  page  313  in  order  to  apply  it  readily  to  the  individual 
fowl  to  be  judged.  WHiile  all  of  these  things  cannot  be 
seen  or  known  at  once,  he  will  quickly  associate  them  with 
individuals  of  the  various  groups  he  is  judging.  After  he 
becomes  acquainted  with  the  groups  the  next  thing  is  to 


EXHIBITION   CLASSES  319 

learn  to  recognize  the  breeds  in  each  group.  This  can  be 
done  by  learning  the  requirements  of  body  conformation, 
comb  shape,  and  tail  carriage  for  each  of  the  breeds.  This 
will  come  by  handling  the  actual  specimens,  and  can  be 
developed  only  by  practice  and  a  careful  study  of  the 
characteristics  of  each  breed  as  outHned  in  more  complete 
treatises  on  this  subject. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Reproduce   from   memory    the   principal   points   on   the 
poultry  score  card. 

2.  Name  the  characteristics  of  each  of  the  four  great  groups 
of  chickens. 

3.  How  does  the  Asiatic  group  differ  from  the  Oriental  ? 

4.  Arrange  the  four  groups  in  order  of  size. 

5.  Arrange  the  four  groups  in  order  of  general  appearance. 

HOME   PROJECTS 


1.  Study  the  home  flock  to  determine  the  group  or  groups  to 
which  the  chickens  belong. 

2.  Study  the  home  flock  to  ascertain  characteristics  of  breed 
or  breeds  represented.  In  making  reports  give  reasons  for  your 
decisions. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
TURKEYS,   DUCKS,   AND    GEESE 

Although  few  poultrymen  and  fanners  care  to  raise 
turkeys,  ducks,  and  geese  on  a  large  scale,  some  or  all  of 
these  fowls  are  found  on  almost  every  farm.  A  brief  outline 
of  the  details  necessary  to  success  in  the  production  of  these 
fowls  is  here  included. 

TURKEYS 

According  to  the  American  standard  of  perfection,  there 
are  several  recognized  varieties  of  turkeys,  as  follows : 
Bronze,  Narragansett,  White,  Black,  Buff,  Slate,  and 
Bourbon.     Of  these  the  Bronze  is  the  most  popular. 

The  Bronze  is  the  largest  of  all  the  standard  varieties, 
the  weight  for  pullets  being  sixteen  pounds ;  hens,  twenty 
pounds;  cockerels,  twenty-five  pounds;  yearling  cocks, 
thirty-three  pounds ;  and  adult  cocks,  thirty-six  pounds. 
The  preferred  weight  for  market  at  Thanksgiving  time  is 
from  fourteen  to  thirty  pounds. 

The  egg  yield  of  a  turkey  hen  is  from  eighteen  to  thirty 
eggs,  each  of  which  can  usually  be  counted  on  to  produce  a 
living  poult  under  natural  conditions.  A  common  source  of 
trouble  in  raising  young  turkeys  is  brought  about  by  con- 
tinued inbreeding.  There  are  so  few  turkeys  raised  in  some 
locaUties  that  all  of  the  turkeys  in  a  neighborhood  within  a 
radius  of  ten  or  fifteen  miles  have  descended  from  a  single 
pair.     Inbreeding  of  this  sort  is  entirely  too  close. 

320 


KIND   OF  HENS  TO  SELECT 


321 


Kind  of  Hens  to  Select.  —  No  matter  what  variety  of 
turkeys  may  be  selected  for  keeping,  they  should,  above  all 
things,  be  strong,  vigorous,  healthy,  and  well  matured,  but 
not  akin.  Better  secure  the  females  from  one  locaUty  and 
the  male  from  another  to  insure  their  non-relationship, 
rather  than  run  the  risk  of  inbreeding. 

Rangers  Are  to  Be  Preferred.  —  Though  turkeys  may  be 
yarded  and  handled  successfully,  with  sufficient  care  they 


White  Holland  turkeys 
Fig.  113.  —  Varieties  of  turkeys. 

do  best  when  they  have  the  entire  range  of  the  farm.  When 
given  free  range  they  pick  up  injurious  insects,  weeds,  and 
waste  grain  that  cannot  be  utilized  in  any  other  way.  The 
cost  of  raising  them  is  thus  greatly  reduced,  and  they  seem 
to  be  in  better  health  where  they  have  free  range.  Wheat, 
oats,  barley,  corn,  in  fact  any  grain  that  makes  good  chicken 

T.    AND   L.    ANIMAL   HUSB.  —  21 


322  TURKEYS,  DUCKS,  AND   GEESE 

feed  can  be  fed  to  turkeys.  Grit,  shell,  and  water  are 
necessary,  as  with  other  poultry. 

Turkeys  do  best  if  they  can  roost  in  the  open  air,  another 
reason  for  giving  them  the  range  of  the  farm. 

Nesting  Provisions.  —  The  turkey  hen  usually  begins  to 
lay  in  the  latter  part  of  March  or  early  in  April.  If  the  eggs 
are  likely  to  be  chilled,  they  should  be  gathered  in  order  to 
protect  them  from  the  cold.  If  it  is  necessary  to  gather 
the  eggs  they  should  be  replaced  with  some  other  sort  of  egg 
until  the  turkey  becomes  broody.  If  all  eggs  are  removed, 
she  will  change  her  nest. 

It  is  well  to  provide  an  old  barrel  or  a  box,  which  may  be 
entered  freely  by  the  turkey  hen,  to  protect  the  nest  from 
the  weather.  Soft  straw  or  hay  is  the  best  nest  material, 
though  if  these  are  not  at  hand  clean,  dry  leaves  make  an 
excellent  nest.  On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  turkey 
hens  produce  such  a  very  small  number  of  eggs,  it  is  best 
not  to  attempt  to  hatch  the  eggs  with  domestic  hens  or 
incubators,  though  of  the  two  substitute  methods  the  hen 
is  to  be  preferred. 

Incubation  of  Turkey  Eggs.  —  The  period  of  incubation 
is  from  twenty-seven  to  twenty-nine  days.  The  fresher 
eggs  will  hatch  a  few  hours  sooner  than  the  older  ones.  The 
best  success  attends  the  hatch  when  not  more  than  nineteen 
eggs  are  given  to  a  turkey  hen  and  not  more  than  ten  eggs 
to  a  domestic  hen.  A  turkey  hen  when  sitting  should  be 
supplied  with  food  and  water  near  by,  so  that  these  will 
be  available  just  as  soon  as  she  comes  from  the  nest. 
Wheat  and  corn  are  the  best  food  at  this  time. 

Brooding  Young  Turkeys.  —  It  is  a  practice  of  most 
breeders  to  set  a  turkey  hen  and  a  domestic  hen  at  the  same 
time,  both  on  turkey  eggs,  and  then  to  give  all  of  the  poults 


DUCKS 


323 


to  the  turkey  hen,  since  the  turkey  seems  to  be  the  more 
successful  of  the  two  in  raising  the  young  brood. 

After  the  young  turkeys  have  grown  large  enough  to 
range  the  farm  they  require  little  attention  until  fattening 
time  comes,  when  they  can  be  fattened  by  the  use  of  the 
rations  given  to  chickens  for  the  same  purpose. 

DUCKS 

Of  the  eleven  standard  breeds  of  ducks,  —  Pekin,  Ayles- 
bury, Rouen,  Cayuga,  Call,  East  India,  Crested,  Muscovy, 
Buff,  Indian  Runner,  and  Swedish,  —  raised  for  fancy  or 
market  purposes,  the  two  most  popular  breeds  and  the  ones 
most  commonly  found  on  the  farm  are  the  White  Pekin  and 
the  Indian  Runner,  either  fawn  or  white.  The  Pekin  duck 
is  valued  primarily  for  its  carcass  as  young  roast  duck,  or 
"  green  duck,"  while  the  Indian  Runner  is  valued  for  its 
great  power  of  egg  production.  It  is  not  unusual  for  Indian 
Runner  females  to  lay  as  many  as  one  hundred  seventy 
eggs  a  year,  rivaling  in  this  respect  the  best  strains  of 
domestic  hens.  The  Rouen  is  a  strong  rival  of  the  Pekin 
in  some  sections. 

Quick  Growth  Necessary.  —  The  quicker  the  flesh  is  put 
on,  the  more  tender  it  is.  The  duck  grower  has  his  duck- 
lings under  absolute  control  all  the  time.  He  keeps  their 
appetites  keen  and  gives  them  all  the  flesh-producing 
food  they  will  eat.  They  are  penned  in  quarters  sufficiently 
large  to  allow  proper  exercise,  but  not  enough  to  make  the 
flesh  hard  from  too  much  activity.  These  pens  are  kept 
absolutely  clean,  as  are  also  the  yards.  In  some  sections 
where  the  soil  is  sticky  and  unsanitary,  duck  growers  cover 
their  yards  with  straw  and  care  for  them  the  same  as  for 
those  in  the  indoor  pens. 


324  TURKEYS,  DUCKS,  AND   GEESE 


Fig.  114.  —  Pekin  ducks. 

Only  Drinking  Water  Necessary. — Ducks  are  given  fresh 
clean  water  to  drink,  which  is  very  essential,  but  none  to 
play  or  wallow  in.  The  expert  duck  grower  has  his  bird 
ready  for  market  in  ten  weeks  from  the  shell.  It  is  larger 
and  many  times  more  toothsome  than  the  six  months  old 
duck  sent  to  market  by  the  farmer. 

Caring  for  the  Eggs.  —  A  good  strain  of  breeding  ducks 
will  lay  an  average  of  at  least  one  hundred  thirty-five  eggs 
per  season,  which  should,  with  proper  feed,  be  eighty-five 
per  cent  fertile.  Ducks  do  not  care  for  nests.  They  pre- 
fer to  drop  their  eggs  on  the  floor.  They  lay  between  four 
and  eight  o'clock  in  the  morning.  They  should  be  fas- 
tened in  their  houses  the  night  before  and  fed  in  the  yards  at 
8  A.M.  and  4  p.m.  daily.  The  eggs  should  be  collected 
after  liberating  the  ducks  in  the  morning.  If  the  pens  are 
clean  the  eggs  will  be  clean.  The  soiled  ones  should  be 
rinsed  in  tepid  water  and  dried  with  a  towel. 

Hatching  with  the  Incubator.  —  As  soon  as  enough  eggs 
have  been  collected  to  fill  an  incubator  they  should  be  set. 


FEEDING  AND   CARE  OF  DUCKLINGS  325 


The  incubator  must  be  run  at  102°  the  first  two  weeks,  102^° 
the  third  week,  and  103°  the  last  week  of  hatch.  The  eggs 
are  turned  once  a  day  during  the  first  week,  then  twice  daily 
until  they  pip.  After  that  the  machine  must  be  kept 
closed  until  the  hatching  is  over. 

Feeding  and  Care  of  Ducklings.  —  After  removal  of  the 
egg  shells  the  ducklings  are  left  in  the  machine  until  thor- 
oughly dry.  They  are  then  ready  to  remove  to  a  brooder, 
which  should  be  at  a  temperature  of  90°.  Any  brooder 
practical  for  chickens  is  good  for  ducklings,  allowing  two 
ducklings  the  same  space  as  three  chicks. 

Ducklings  ought  to  have  clean,  sharp  river  sand  and 
fresh  water  before  them.  They  should  be  fed  five  times  a 
day  with  bread  crumbs  mixed  with  the  boiled  infertile 
eggs  from  the  incubator,  which  are  ground  fine  in  a  meat 
chopper,  with  enough  crumbs  to  make  a  dry  food.  Stale 
bread  is  preferable,  but  it  must  be  perfectly  sweet,  not 
moldy  or  sour. 

After  the  fifth  day  a  growing  mash,  made  of  six  parts 
bran,  two  parts  corn  meal,  two  of  flour,  five  of  cut  greens, 
ten  per  cent  of  beef  scrap,  sand,  grit,  and  oyster  shell,  should 
be  fed.  They  are  given  all  they  will  eat  up  clean.  After 
eight  weeks  of  age  they  are  gradually  changed  to  a  fattening 
food,  consisting  of  four  parts  of  corn  meal,  two  parts  of  low 
grade  flour,  one  part  of  bran,  twelve  per  cent  of  beef  scrap ; 
to  this  should  be  added  a  little  cut  greens,  sand,  shell,  and 
grit  to  aid  in  digestion.  Many  feed  good  food,  but  fail  to 
provide  proper  grit  to  digest  it.  The  cut  greens  may  be 
either  lawn  clippings,  green  clover,  corn  fodder,  dwarf  Essex 
rape,  or  wheat.  If  ducklings  have  been  carefully  fed  and 
attended  to  they  will  average  ten  pounds  or  more  to  the 
pair.     At  ten  weeks  they  are  in  the  best  condition  to  kill. 


326 


TURKEYS,  DUCKS,  AND   GEESE 


If  Ihey  are  now  properly  prepared  for  market  they  will  com- 
mand a  price  that  makes  production  profitable. 


iv  vv  vv 


Fig.  115.  —  Indian  Runner  ducks. 

It  costs  about  a  third  less  to  produce  one  pound  of 
duck  flesh  than  it  does  to  produce  one  pound  of  chicken. 
Ducks  are  practically  free  from  disease,  easy  to  raise,  and 
readily  marketed. 

Indian  Runner  Ducks.  —  The  Indian  Runner  ducks  are 
so  called  because  they  are  supposed  to  have  originated  in 
India  and  because  of  their  peculiar  manner  of  running. 
They  excel  many  breeds  of  hens  as  egg  producers. 

Indian  Runner  ducks  are  the  hardiest  of  all  do- 
mestic fowls,  being  practically  free  from  all  contagious 
diseases.  They  bear  confinement  wtII  and  are  especially 
adapted  to  limited  quarters.  It  is  not  necessary  to  have  a 
pond  or  a  quantity  of  water  to  raise  them  successfully,  — 
just  enough  for  them  to  drink  and  so  that  they  can  cover 
their  heads. 

They  are  active  and  will  forage  for  part  of  their  living. 
They  thrive  on  coarse  feed,  with  little  attention  and  cheap 
housing,  and  are  very  rapid  growers. 

The  Indian  Runner  ducks  possess  great  laying  qual- 
ities, and  they  should  be  bred  with  this  one  object  in 
view,  preserving,   of  course,    the   standard  markings.     If 


CARE  AND  MANAGEMENT  OF  LAYING  DUCKS     327 

fed  for  this  purpose,  they  commence  laying  at  from  four 
to  six  months  of  age.  Duckhngs  hatched  in  June  or 
July  often  lay  through  the  entire  winter.  They  lay  well 
until  several  years  old.  Their  capacity  for  winter  egg  pro- 
duction is  their  strongest  characteristic. 

Indian  Runner  eggs  are  not  quite  so  large  as  the  eggs  of 
other  varieties  of  ducks,  but  larger  than  a  hen's  egg.  They 
are  of  a  delicate  flavor  quite  unlike  that  of  all  the  other 
ducks'  eggs.  The  shell  is  a  beautiful  white  color  with  an 
occasional  tint,  so  that  the  egg  is  attractive  in  appearance. 

Care  and  Management  of  Laying  Ducks.  —  After  the 
first  of  May  laying  ducks  do  better  if  allowed  to  run. 
They  should  be  shut  up  in  a  pen  or  inclosure,  however, 
until  8  or  9  a.m.,  when  they  will  be  through  laying  for  the 
day. 

For  winter  protection  a  warm  house  is  necessary.  It 
need  not  be  costly  or  large.  A  tight  shed,  eight  feet  high 
in  front,  four  feet  high  at  the  back,  open  to  the  south  will 
meet  all  requirements.  An  earth  floor  with  plenty  of  straw 
for  bedding  can  be  used. 

Laying  ducks  require  food  that  will  produce  eggs  and 
make  shell.  The  same  rations  that  are  fed  to  laying  hens 
are  also  suitable  for  the  feeding  of  ducks. 

Ducks  must  have  shade  in  hot  weather,  exercise,  and 
plenty  of  fresh  air.  They  prefer  to  stay  outside  no  matter 
how  stormy  the  weather,  but  they  may  be  trained  to  use  a 
house  or  shed.  Poor  sleeping  quarters,  a  lack  of  bedding, 
or  allowing  them  to  sleep  out  in  bad  weather,  causes  rheu- 
matism, about  the  only  disease  to  which  they  are  subject. 
A  little  care  in  this  one  particular  will  insure  against  loss 
of  birds.  Ducks  may  be  allowed  to  stay  outside  except  at 
night  during  cold  or  stormy  weather.     They  are  hardier 


328  TURKEYS,  DUCKS,  AND   GEESE 

than  chickens,  and  with  a  Httle  care  and  with  proper  shelter 
they  will  show  most  gratifying  results. 

Feeding  troughs  and  water  fountains  must  be  kept  clean. 
Ducklings  should  be  sheltered  from  rain  till  well  feathered. 
Shade  should  be  provided  for  the  hot  summer  weather. 
They  should  always  have  water  before  them  while  eating, 
whether  young  or  old,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  swim 
in  it  till  feathered » 

GEESE 

Of  the  six  standard  breeds  of  geese, — Toulouse,  Embden, 
African,  Chinese,  Wild  or  Canadian,  and  Egyptian,  —  the 
most  popular  one  is  the  Toulouse. 

A  few  geese  can  be  kept  on  a  farm  without  causing  much 
trouble,  but  if  their  number  is  large  they  must  be  restrained, 
fenced  far  away  from  the  house,  the  barn,  and  the  farming 
and  pasturing  lands.  An  ideal  place  for  geese  is  rough  up- 
land, slanting  down  into  marshy  places  where  there  is  at 
least  one  pool  of  water  in  which  the  geese  may  swim.  The 
uplands  furnish  a  change  of  pasture  for  them  and  a  dry 
place  for  them  to  rest.  If  a  few  shade  trees  grow  upon  the 
hillside,  their  shelter  will  be  found  desirable  ;  if  there  are  no 
trees,  a  low,  slant-roof  shed  open  toward  the  south  should  be 
built  as  a  protection  from  sun,  rain,  and  snow.  Eggs  laid  by 
geese  having  free  access  to  water  are  more  likely  to  be  fertile 
than  are  eggs  laid  by  geese  without  access  to  such  a  pool. 

Ranges  for  Geese.  —  Geese  may  live  almost  entirely  by 
grazing.  Marshy  lands  are  suitable  pasture  for  geese,  since 
they  furnish  a  supply  of  rich,  juicy  grasses,  snails,  water 
beetles,  worms,  and  bugs  that  grow  in  such  places.  Where 
such  pasturage  can  be  had,  even  though  the  land  may  be 
worthless,  it  is  excellent  upon  which  to  grow  geese. 


BREEDING  STOCK 


329 


Breeding  Stock.  —  For  beauty  and  elegance  the  Gray 
Toulouse  and  the  White  Embden  surpass  all  other  kinds  of 
geese.  It  is  not  unusual  for  adults  of  these  two  breeds  to 
weigh  from  forty  to  forty-five  pounds  per  pair.  Either 
kind  can  be  made  to 
weigh  from  twelve  to  six- 
teen pounds  each  when 
between  eight  and  nine 
months  old,  at  which  age 
they  are  best  for  table 
use. 

Geese  lay  from  sixteen 
to  forty  eggs  each  in  a 
single  year,  averaging 
about  twenty-five  eggs 
each. 

Laying  geese  do  best 
when  not  too  fat.  A 
mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  corn  meal,  wheatmid- 
dlings,  wheat  bran,  and 
ground  oats,  with  a  Uttle 
animal  food  mixed  in, 
is  best  for  them.  This 
should  be  moistened  and 
fed  in  shallow  troughs. 

When  corn  is  fed  to  them  they  may  be  taught  to  eat  dry 
grain.  After  the  birds  become  accustomed  to  this  kind 
of  feeding  it  does  not  injure  them,  but  they  do  not  thrive  so 
well  nor  will  they  make  such  tender  meat  as  when  they 
receive  a  meal-mash  mixture.  Geese  are  liable  to  '^  blind 
staggers  "  or  choking  spells  from  eating  dry  grain  without 


Fig.    116.  —  An  African  gander  crossed  with 
Toulouse  makes  the  finest  meat  fowl. 


330 


TURKEYS,  DUCKS,  AND   GEESE 


a  plentiful  supply  of  water  at  hand.  Their  habit  is  to  eat 
a  little  and  drink  a  little,  and  continue  doing  so  until  they 
have  enough. 

Natural  Incubation  Preferred.  —  Geese  hatch  their  own 
eggs ;  when  they  lay  more  than  a  nestful  the  surplus  eggs 
should  be  hatched  under  a  hen.  The  incubation  period  is 
from  twenty-eight  to  thirty  days.     The  goslings  should  be 


Fig.  117.  —  White  Chinese  geese. 

left  in  the  nest  until  they  are  perfectly  dry.  When  taken 
outside  they  should  be  placed  in  a  small  inclosure  provided 
with  some  kind  of  shelter.  Goslings  must  be  protected  from 
cold  and  rain  until  they  are  at  least  two  weeks  old,  after 
which  they  may  be  given  their  liberty. 

Feeding  Young  Goslings.  —  The  first  food  for  young 
goslings  should  be  bread  and  milk,  made  into  a  moist  mash 
with  wheat  bran  or  wheat  middlings ;  or  a  mixture  of  one 
part  each  of  corn  meal  and  ground  oats  and  two  parts  of 
wheat  bran.  This  should  be  moistened  with  either  hot 
milk  or  hot  water  and  made  into  a  crumbly  mass  which  the 
goslings  can  pick  up  easily.  The  food  should  never  be  hot, 
only  slightly  warm.  Goslings,  as  well  as  geese,  should  have 
a  plentiful  supply  of  grass  for  grazing.     They  will  eat  grass 


FATTENING  GEESE 


33^ 


Fig.  ii8.  —  Mixed  flock  of  geese- 


freely  and  appear  to  grow  fat  on  it,  but  when  fed  a  proper 
grain  ration  goslings  grow  very  rapidl}^ 

Fattening  Geese.  —  While  being  fattened,  geese  should 
be  kept  perfectly  quiet  and  should  be*  fed  all  the  food  they 
will  eat.  Their  food  should  consist  of  equal  parts  by  meas- 
ure of  corn  meal,  ground  oats,  wheat  middhngs,  and  wheat 
bran,  mixed  and  moistened  with  either  milk  or  water. 
Geese  so  fed  will  be  fit  for  table  use  within  ten  or  twelve 
days.  In  some  localities,  when  the  geese  fed  in  this  way 
are  so  fat  as  to  quit  feeding,  they  are  shut  up  in  dark  places 
and  stuffed  with  specially  prepared  "  noodles  "  three  or  four 
times  a  day  until  they  become  excessively  fat.  Stuffed 
geese  develop  abnormally  large  livers,  which  are  prized  as 
a  great  delicacy.  In  a  few  regions  of  the  United  States, 
the  stuffed-goose  industry  has  developed  large  propor- 
tions. 


332  TURKEYS,  DUCKS,  AND   GEESE 

EXERCISES 

1.  In  growing  turkeys,  what  are  the  essential  points  to  be  re- 
membered in  the  selection  of  breeding  stock  ? 

2.  Why  do  turkeys  do  better  on  the  open  range  than  under 
confinement  ? 

3.  What  are  the  essential  differences  between  Pekin  and 
Indian  Runner  ducks? 

4.  What  are  the  essential  ingredients  of  the  feed  for  young 
ducks?     Give  reason  for  each  ingredient  selected. 

5.  How  does  the  food  for  market  ducks  differ  from  that  for 
layers  ?     Why  ? 

6.  What  are  the  essential  differences,  if  any,  in  the  care  and 
management  of  ducks  and  geese? 

HOME  PROJECTS 

1.  Get  permission  to  produce  and  market  a  flock  of  either 
turkeys,  ducks,  or  geese.  Keep  accurate  record  of  cost  and 
returns. 

2.  Study  the  home  method  of  producing  either  of  these  classes 
of  poultry  and  report  on  how  it  may  be  improved. 


APPENDIX    ' 

HAECKER'S  FEEDING  STANDARD  FOR  THE  DAIRY  COW 


Daily  Allowance  of 

Digestible 

Nutrients 

Crude 

Carbo- 

Fat 

Protein 

hydrates 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

For  support  of  the  looo-lb.  cow  .... 

0.700 

7.00 

O.IOO 

To  the  allowance  for  supi>ort  add  : 

For  each  lb.  of  3.0  per  cent  milk  .... 

0.040 

0.19 

0.015 

For  each  lb.  of  3.5  per  cent  milk .     . 

0.042 

0.21 

0.016 

For  each  lb.  of  4.0  per  cent  milk  .     . 

0.047 

0.23 

0.0 1 S 

For  each  lb.  of  4.5  per  cent  milk  .     . 

0.049 

0.26 

0.020 

For  each  lb.  of  5.0  per  cent  milk .     . 

0.051 

0.27 

0.021 

For  each  lb.  of  5.5  per  cent  milk .     . 

0.054 

0.29 

0.022 

For  each  lb.  of  6.0  per  cent  milk .     . 

0.057 

0.31 

0.024 

For  each  lb.  of  6.5  per  cent  milk  .     . 

0.061 

0.33 

0.025 

For  each  lb.  of  7.0  per  cent  milk  .     . 

0.063 

0.3  s 

0.027 

To  formulate  a  ration,  according  to  this  standard,  for  a 
900  pound  cow,  producing  30  lbs.  4  per  cent  milk,  the  pro- 
cedure is  as  follows : 

Digestible  nutrients  required  daily  by  the  900  pound  cow 
yielding  30  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk  daily. 


Crude  Protein 

Carbohydrates 

Fat 

For  maintenance      .     .     . 
For  30  lbs.  4  per  cent  milk  . 

0.63 
1. 410 

6.30 
6.90 

0.09 
0.540 

Total 

2.04 

13.20 

0.63 

333 


334 


APPENDIX 


For  maintenance,  the  900  pound  cow  requires  nine 
tenths  as  much  of  the  digestible  nutrients  as  the  1000 
pound  cow,  or  0.63  pound  of  digestible  protein,  6.30  pounds 
of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.09  pound  of  digestible 
fat.  For  the  production  of  30  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk 
there  is  required  an  additional  1.41  pounds  of  digestible 
protein,  6.90  pounds  of  digestible  carbohydrates,  and 
0.540  pound  of  fat,  making  the  standard  for  the  900 
pound  cow  yielding  30  pounds  of  4  per  cent  milk  daily 
consist  of  2.04  pounds  of  digestible  protein,  13.2  pounds  of 
digestible  carbohydrates,  and  0.63  pound  of  digestible  fat 
material.  In  order  to  calculate  the  ration  that  will  satisfy 
the  requirements  of  the  standard,  the  same  method  is  em- 
ployed as  in  determining  the  amount  for  the  Wolff-Lehmann 
standards. 

AVERAGE   DIGESTIBLE    NUTRIENTS    AND    FERTILIZING 
CONSTITUENTS   IN    AMERICAN   FEEDING   STUFFS 


Name  of  Feed 

Total 
Dry 

Matter 
IN  100 

LBS. 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 
ents IN  1000  Lbs. 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

CONXEXT  RATES 

Grains,  Seeds,  and  their 
Parts 
Dent  com  .... 
Flint  corn  ^      .     .     . 
Sweet  corn  ^     .     .     , 
Corn-and-cob  meal  . 
Gluten  feed     .     .     . 
Hominy  feed  (chop)  . 

Wheat 

Red-dog  flour  ^     .     . 

Lbs. 

89.4 
88.7 
91.2 

84.9 

90.8 

90.4 

1    89.5 

|9o.x 

Lbs. 
7.8 
8.0 
8.8 
4.4 

21.3 
6.8 
8.8 

16.2 

Lbs. 
66.8 
66.2 

63.7 
60.0 
52.8 
60.5 
67.5 
57-0 

Lbs. 
4-3 
4.3 
7.0 
2.9 
2.9 
7-4 
1-5 
3-4 

Lbs. 

16.5 
16.8 
18.6 
13.6 
40.0 
16.8 
19.0 
29.4 

Lbs. 
7-1 
7-1 
7-1 
5-7 
3-7 
9.8 

5-5 

Lbs. 
5-7 
5-7 
5-7 
4-7 
0.4 
4.9 
8.7 

From  "Feeds  and  Feeding"  by  Henry  and  Morrison. 


APPENDIX 


335 


Total 

Dry 

Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 
ents IN  1000  Lbs. 

Name  of  Feed 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

IN    lOO 

Lbs. 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Potash 

Grains,  Seed,  and  their 

Parts  —  Continued 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Standard  wheat  mid- 

dlings (shorts)  .     . 

88.8 

I3-0 

45-7 

4-5 

27.0 

26.3 

15.3 

Wheat      bran,      all 

analyses  .... 

88.1 

II.9 

42.0 

2.5 

24.6 

26.9 

15.2 

Wheat  screenings     . 

88.4 

9.6 

48.2 

1.9 

20.0 

II. 7 

8.4 

Rye^ 

91-3 

9.5 

69.4 

1.2 

18.1 

8.6 

5.8 

Rye  middlings  ^   .     . 

88.2 

IT.O 

52.9 

2.6 

22.9 

12.3 

9.6 

Barley 

89.2 

8.4 

65.3 

1.6 

19.2 

7-9 

4.8 

Emmer  (speltz)    .     . 

92.0 

lO.O 

70.3 

2.0 

18.4 

7.6 

5.7 

Oats 

89.6 

10.7 

50.3 

3.8 

18.2 

7.8 

4.8 

OathuUsi.       .     .     . 

92.6 

1.3 

38.5 

0.6 

5-3 

1.6 

4.9 

Buckwheat      .     .     . 

86.6 

8.1 

48.2 

2.4 

17-3 

6.9 

3-0 

Buckwheat  middlings 

87.2 

22.7 

37-5 

6.1 

42.7 

12.3 

11.4 

Buckwheat  hulls  ^     . 

86.8 

1.2 

28.6 

0.5 

7-3 

4-3 

14.7 

Rice 

87.6 

6.4 

79.2 

0.4 

11.8 

1.8 

0.9 

Canada  field  pea  .     . 

85.0 

19.7 

49-3 

0.4 

37-9 

8.4 

10. 1 

Cowpea 

85-4 

16.8 

54-9 

I.I 

32.8 

10. 1 

12.0 

Soy  bean     .... 

88.3 

29.1 

23-3 

14.6 

53.6 

10.4 

12.6 

Kafl&r  corn       .     .     . 

90.1 

5-2 

44-3 

1.4 

17.9 

Milo  maize  seed  ^ 

91.0 

4.9 

44.8 

1-3 

T7.1 

Flaxseed     .... 

90.8 

20.6 

17.1 

29.0 

36.2 

13-9 

10.3 

Linseed     meal,     old 

■ 

process    .... 

90.2 

30.2 

32.0 

6.9 

54-2 

16.6 

13-7 

Linseed    meal,    new 

process    .... 

91.0 

31-5 

35-7 

2.4 

60.0 

17.4 

13-4 

Cottonseed  meal 

93-0 

37.6 

21.4 

9.6 

72.5 

30.4 

15.8 

Cottonseed  hulls 

88.9 

0.5 

33-2 

1-7 

6.7 

4.3 

10.4 

Dried  beet  pulp  .     . 

91.6 

4.1 

64.9 

12.9 

2.2 

3.1 

Dried  molasses  beet 

pulp    ..... 

92.0 

6.1 

68.7 

15-4 

1.5 

18.1 

Cow's  milk      .     .     . 

12.8 

3-4 

4.8 

3-7 

5-8 

1.9 

1.7 

Cow's  milk,  colostrum 

25-4 

17.6 

2.7 

3.6 

28.2 

6.6 

I.I 

Skim  milk  .... 

9.4 

2.9 

5-3 

0.3 

5-0 

2.1 

2.0 

Buttermilk      .     .     . 

9.9 

3.8 

3-9 

I.O 

6.4 

1-7 

1.6 

Wheyi 

6.2 

0.6 

5-0 

0.2 

1.0 

I.I 

2.0 

Tankage  1   .     .     .     . 

93-0 

50.1 

11.6 

86.2 

139.0 

3-0 

"  Feeds  and  Feeding. 


336 


APPENDIX 


Total 
Dry 

Matter 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 
ents IN  1000  Lbs. 

Name  of  Feed 

IN    lOO 

Lbs. 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
h^  drates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Dried  Roughage 

Fodder  corn,  ears,  if 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

any,  remaining 

57.8 

2.5 

34.6 

1.2 

7.2 

5-4 

8.9 

Corn  stover,  ears  re- 

moved    .... 

59-5 

1-4 

31-2 

0.7 

6.1 

3.8 

10.9 

Timothy,  all  analyses 

86.8 

2.8 

42.4 

1-3 

9.4 

3-3 

14.2 

Kentucky  blue  grass 

86.0 

4.4 

40.2 

0.7 

I2.S 

4.0 

15-7 

Red  clover  .... 

84.7 

7.1 

37.8 

1.8 

19.7 

5-5 

18.7 

Mammoth  red  clover^ 

78.8 

6.2 

34-7 

2.1 

17.1 

5-2 

11.6 

Alsike  clover   .     .     . 

90-3 

8.4 

39-7 

I.I 

20.5 

S-o 

13-9 

White  clover   .     .     . 

90.3 

ii-S 

42.2 

1-5 

25-1 

7.8 

13.2 

Soy  bean     .... 

88.2 

10.6 

40.9 

1.2 

23.8 

Cowpea 

89-5 

5.8 

39-3 

1-3 

14-3 

5-2 

14.7 

Alfalfa,    western 

United  States  .     . 

93-2 

II. I 

39-1 

0.6 

24.7 

6.1 

17.9 

Wheat 

90.4 

0.8 

35-2 

0.4 

S-o 

2.2 

6.3 

Rye 

92.9 

0.7 

39-6 

0.4 

50 

2.5 

8.6 

Oat 

90.8 

1-3 

39-5 

0.8 

5.8 

3.0 

17.7 

Barley 

85.8 

0.9 

40.1 

0.6 

7.0 

2.0 

10.6 

Fresh  Green  Roughage 

Fodder  corn,  all  va- 

rieties     .... 

20.7 

I.O 

11.9 

0.4 

2.9 

I.I 

3-9 

Fresh  Green  Grasses 

Pasture  grass  .     .     . 

20.0 

2-5 

10. 1 

0-5 

5.6 

2.6 

7-4 

Kentucky  blue  grass  1 

34-9 

2.8 

19.7 

0.8 

6.6 

Timothy     .... 

38.4 

1-5 

19.9 

0.6 

5-0 

2.6 

7.6 

Fresh    Green    Legumes, 

Grasses,  and    Leg- 

umes Combined 

Red  clover  .... 

29.2 

2.9 

14.9 

0.7 

7.0 

1-5 

4.8 

Mammoth  red  clover' 

20.0 

2.0 

9.1 

0.2 

4.8 

Alsike  clover '      .     . 

25.2 

2.6 

11.4 

0.5 

6.2 

I.I 

2.0 

Crimson  clover    .     . 

19.1 

2.4 

9.1 

0.5 

5-0 

1.2 

4.0 

Sweet  clover  ^     .     . 

20.0 

2.5 

8.4 

0.4 

6.1 

2.4 

6.7 

Alfalfa 

28.2 

3-6 

12. 1 

0.4 

7-7 

1-3 

5-6 

Barley  and  peas  .     . 

20.0 

2.1 

9.1 

0.4 

4-5 

Oats  and  peas      .     . 

20.3 

1.8 

10.2 

0.4 

3.8 

1-5 

5-0 

1  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


APPENDIX 


337 


Total 
Dry 

Matter 

IN    lOO 

Lbs. 

Digestible  Nutrients 

Fertilizing  Constitu- 
ents in  iooo  Lbs. 

Name  of  Feed 

Crude 
Protein 

Carbo- 
hydrates 

Fat 

Nitro- 
gen 

Phos- 
phoric 
Acid 

Potash 

Roots  and  Tubers 

Potato 

Mangel 

Sugar  beet  .... 
Flat  turnip      .     .     . 

Silage 

Corn,  recent  analyses 
Corn,  ears  removed  ^ 
Red  clover  .... 
Brewers'  grains  ^  .     . 
Corn  cannery  refuse, 
husk  ^      .     .     .     . 
Pea  cannery  refuse  ^  . 

Lbs. 

20.9 

9.1 

13.5 
9.9 

26.4 
26.3 
28.0 
29.7 

16.2 
23.2 

Lbs. 
I.I 
I.O 

1-3 
0.9 

1.4 
I.I 

1-5 
4.6 

0.4 
2.1 

Lbs. 

15-7 
5-5 
9.8 
6.4 

.  14.2 

14.9 

9.2 

ID.  I 

I3-I 

Lbs. 
O.I 
0.2 
O.I 
O.I 

0.7 
0.7 
0.5 

1.8 

0.4 
0.8 

Lbs. 

3-4 
2.2 
2.9 
2.1 

4-3 
3-5 
6.7 

ID. I 

2.2 
4-5 

Lbs. 
1.6 
0.9 
0.8 
0.9 

I.I 

4.2 

Lbs. 
5-8 
3.8 
3-7 
3-4 

3-7 
0.5 

1  "  Feeds  and  Feeding." 


N.  C.  Stale  College 


T.    AND    L.    ANIMAL   HUSB.  2  2 


INDEX 


Aberdeen  Angus  cattle,  io6,  113-114 
Abomasum,  20 
Absorption  of  food,  17,  18 
Age,  and  digestion,  27 
Alfalfa,  38-39 

a  legume,  37 

gas  from  eating,  20 

mineral  matter  in,  15 

protein  in,  13 

vitamine  in,  16 

with  molasses,  56 
Amber  cane,  34 

American  Merino  sheep,  131-132 
American  Saddle  horse,  81 
American  Trotter  and  Pacer,  81,  94-96 

Morgan  horse,  96 

race  horse,  95-96 

Standard  Bred  horse,  96 
Amino  acids,  18 
Ancona  chickens,  313 
Angora  goats,  149-150 
Animal  body,  composition,  11-21 
Animal  starch,  13 
Appendix,  353-337 
Arabian  horse,  81,  96-97 
Ash,  in  feed  stuffs,  22 
Assimilation  of  food,  17 
Ayrshire  Association,  270 
Ayrshire  cattle,  106,  122-124 

Bacon  hogs,  judging,  191-192 
Bacterial  fermentation,  20 
Balanced  ration,  63 
Barley,  37,  45-46 

carbohydrates  in,  14 

feeds,  53-54 

value  of  crushing,  26 
Barns,  245 
Beans,  a  legume,  37 
Bedding,  29 
Beef  cattle,  106 

Aberdeen  Angus,  106,  11 3-1 14 

care,  236-243 


Beef  cattle  —  Continued 

equipment,  241 

feeding,  239-240 

Galloway,  106,  114 

Hereford,  106,  iio-iii 

housing,  241-242 

judging,  165-176 

management,  236-243 

Polled  Durham,  106 

Polled  Hereford,  106,  11 2-1 13 

production,  237-238 

sire,  care  of,  237 

water  for,  242 

West  Highland,  106,  115-117 
Beef  fat,  vitamine  in,  16 
Beet  pulp,  55-56 
Belgian  draft  horse,  79,  84-85 
Bermuda  grass,  33,  37 
Black  Face  Highland  sheep,  147-149 
Bloat,  20 
Blood,  circulation,  18 

iron  in,  21 

magnesium  in,  21 
Blood  meal,  59,  60 
Blue  Andalusian  chickens,  313 
Blue  grass,  Kentucky,  34 
Bones,  magnesium  in,  21 

mineral  matter  in,  15 
Brain  cells,  12 
Brahma  chickens,  317 
Bran,  corn,  54 

mineral  matter  in,  15 

rice,  53 

wheat,  51 
Breed  Associations,  267-271 

requirements  for  admission,  269 
Breed,  defined,  79 
Breeding  horses,  judging,  229-230 
Breeds  of  cattle,  106-130 

of  horses,  79-105 

of  sheep,  131-151 

of  swine,  152-164 
Brome  grass,  33,  36-37 


339 


340 


INDEX 


Broncho,  81,  gc 
Brooder,  286 

house,  289-290 
Broomcorn,  34 
Brown  Swiss  Association,  270 
Brown  Swiss  cattle,  106,  124-125 
Buckwheat,  carbohydrates  in,  14 

middHngs,  52 
Burro,  102 

Butter  fat,  vitamine  in,  16 
Buttermilk,  61 
By-product  feeds,  32,  51-62 

barley,  53-54 

beet  pulp,  55-56 

blood  meal,  59,  60 

buttermilk,  61 

condimental  stock  foods,  62 

corn  bran,  54 

cottonseed  meal,  57 

from  cereals,  53-54 

from  corn,  54-55 

from  dairj-ing,  60-61 

from  manufacture  of  sugar,  55-56 

from    slaughtering    animals,    32,    59- 
60 

germ  meal,  54 

glucose,  32 

gluten  meal,  55 

grains,  32 

hominy,  54 

linseed  meal,  58-59 

meat  meal,  59,  60 

molasses,  56 

oat  hulls,  S3 

oils,  32 

skim  milk,  61 

starch,  32 

sugar,  32 

whey,  61 
By-products,  concentrates,  42 

Cabbage,  vitamine  in,  16 
Caecum,  18 
Calcium,  11 

in  plants,  15 

in  the  skeleton,  21 
Calculating  rations,  71 
Calves,  70 

alfalfa  for,  38-39 

bran  for,  51 

crushed  grain  for,  30 

linseed  meal  for,  59 


Carbohydrates,  11,  13-14,  19-20 

crude  fiber,  23 

effects  of  digestive  fluids,  20-21 

in  oats,  45 

nitrogen  free  extract,  23 
Carbon,  11,  13 

in  fats,  14 
Carriage  horses,  judging,  225-227 
Cattle,  Ayrshire,  106,  122-124 

barley  for,  46 

beef  {see  Beef  cattle) 

beet  pulp  for,  55 

breeds,  106-130 

Brown  Swiss,  124-125 

buckwheat  middlings  for,  52 

care  of  beef,  236-243 

classification,  106 

cottonseed  meal  for,  57 

dairy  {see  Dairy  cattle) 

digestion  experiments,  24-25 

dual-purpose,  106 

fattening,  30 

feeding  standards,  70-73 

feed  troughs,  242 

judging,  165-186 

linseed  meal  for,  59 

tuberculosis,  248-249 
Cells,  phosphorus,  21 
Cellulose,  13,  19 

in  crude  fiber,  23 
Cell  walls,  12 
Cereal  grains,  grass,  33 
Cereals,  as  grasses,  37 

by-products  from,  53-54 

carbohydrates  in,  14 
Chester  White  swine,  157-158 
Cheviot  sheep,  131,  1 40-1 41 
Chickens,  age  of  eggs,  283 

American  class,  311,  315-316 

Anconas,  313 

artificial  brooding,  285 

artificial  incubation,  281-282 

Asiatic  class,  311,  316-317 

Blue  Andalusians,  313 

Brahmas,  317 

breed  requirements,  311 

breeds,  307-319 

brooder,  286 

brooder  house,  289-290 

brooding,  281-292 

care,  293-296 

care  of  chicks,  279 


INDEX 


341 


Chickens  — •  Continued 
chilling  eggs,  282 
classes,  311 

cleanUness  and  incubation,  283 
Cochin,  317 

cooking  food  for,  296-297 
Cornish,  318 
cut  bone  as  feed,  296 
diseases,  302-303 
disinfectants,  304-305 
dual  purpose  breeds,  315-316 
dust  baths,  301-302 
egg  breeds,  307,  313 
eggs  for  incubation,  282 
English  classes,  311,  315-316 
exhibition  classes,  311,  317-319 
farm  flock,  274-275 
feeding,  293-296 
feeding  brooder  chicks,  286-289 
feeding  range  stock,  299 
French  classes,  311,  315-316 
Game,  318 

general  purpose  breeds,  308-309 
grinding  food,  296-297 
grit,  295 

hatching,  284-285 
houses,  275-277 
incubation,  281-292 
inducing  to  eat,  295 
essentials  of  good  ration,  299-300 
green  foods,  299 
judging,  309-311 
Langshan,  317 
laying,  293-306 
Leghorn,  274,  313 
Uce  and  mites,  303-304 
Malay,  318 
meat  breeds,  308 
Mediterranean  classes,  31 1-3 13 
mineral  matter,  295 
Minorcas,  313 

mistakes  in  treating,  279-280 
molting,  298-299 
Oriental  classes,  311,  317-319 
Plymouth  Rock,  274 
raising  feed  for,  300-301 
range- raised  chicks,  291 
renewing  flock,  278-279 
Rhode  Island  Red,  274 
rules  for  judging,  311 
sanitary  precautions,  286 
score  card  for  buff  varieties,  309-310 


Chickens  —  Continued 

sitting  hens,  279 

small  flock,  290-291 

Spanish,  313 

standard  rations,  297 

Sumatra,  318 

temperature  and  incubation,  283 

types,  307-319 

variety  in  diet,  295-296 

water  for,  294 

yard  space,  277-278 
Chlorine,  11 

in  digestion,  21 
Cholera,  hog,  262-264 
Circulation,  18,  20,  21 
Cleveland  Bay  horse,  81,  93-94 
Clover,  alsike,  40 

crimson,  40 

gas  from  eating,  20 

legume,  37 

mammoth  red,  39-40 

medium  red,  39 

mineral  matter  in,  15 

protein  in,  13 

sweet,  40-41 

white,  40 
Clydesdale  draft  horse,  79,  85-86 
Coach  horse,  81 

P^nglish,  81 

French,  81 

German,  81 

Hackney,  81 

Morgan,  96 

Yorkshire,  81 
Cochin  chickens,  317 
Cod  Uver  oil,  vitamine  in,  16 
CoHc  in  horses,  235 
Colts,  alfalfa  for,  39 
Composition  of  animal  body,  11-21 
Concentrates,  23.  42 

cereal  foods,  s^ 

defined,  32 

ether  extract,  23 

from  slaughter  of  animals,  32 

glucose,  32 

grains,  32 

oil-bearing  seeds,  32 

oils,  32 

starch,  32 

sugar,  32 
Condimental  stock  foods,  62 
Cooking,  26 


342 


INDEX 


Corn,  43-44 

a  grass,  33 

analysis,  23-24 

bran,  54 

carbohydrates  in,  14 

crushing,  30 

forage,  28 

for  live  stock,  34 

grinding,  30 

prevention  of  heating,  27 

roughage,  33 

silage,  48-50 

vitamines  in,  16 
Cornish  chickens,  318 
Corpuscles,  red,  21 
Cotswold  sheep,  146-147 
Cottonseed  meal,  57 

protein  in,  13 
Cottonseed  poisoning,  58 
Cotton  seeds,  vitamines  in,  16 
Cowpeas,  41 

legume,  37 
Cows,  world's  record,  271 
Crossbreeding,  266 
Crude  fiber,  13,  iq,  23 

cellulose  in,  23 

digestibility,  25 

in  bran,  51 

in  feeding  stuffs,  22 

in  grasses,  14 

in  hay,  24 

in  oats,  45 

Dairy  cattle,  106,  11 7-1 27,  244 
alfalfa  for,  38 
Ayrshire,  106,  122-124 
barns,  245 
bran  for,  51 

Brown  Swiss,  106,  124-125 
care,  244-250 
corn  for,  43 
corn  silage  for,  50 
cottonseed  meal  for,  58 
Dutch  Belted,  125-126 
feeding,  245-246,  247,  248 
food  producers,  67 
French  Canadian,  106,  126-127 
ground  feed  for,  30 
Guernsey,  106,  120-122 
Haecker's  feeding  standard,  333-337 
Holstein,  106 
Holstcin-Friesian,  11 7-1 18 


Dairy  cattle  —  Continued 

Jersey,  11 8-1 20 

judging,  177-186 

Kerry,  106,  127 

management  of,  244-250 

milk  fever,  250 

oats  for,  45 

production  requirements,  247 

Shetland,  106 

variety  in  rations,  247-248 

water  for,  68 
Dairying,  advantages,  244-245 

cattle,  244 

equipment,  245-246 
Delaine  Merino  sheep,  131 
Delaine  sheep,  132-133 
Devon  cattle,  106,  129-130 
Digestibility,  24-27 

age  of  animal,  27 

amount  of  food,  27 

crushing  feed,  26 

curing  feed,  26 

curing  forage,  26 

defined,  24 

drying  feed,  26 

drying  forage,  26 

effect  of  cooking,  26 

effect  of  kindness,  27 

effect  of  work,  27 

factors  influencing,  25-27 

frequency  of  feeding,  27 

grinding  feed,  26 

ground  feed,  26 

how  determined,  24-25 
Digestible  nutrient,  24 
Digestion,  17 

age  of  animal,  27 

chlorine,  21 

kind  of  animal,  27 

of  ox,  20 

of  sheep,  20 
Digestive  fluids,  20 
Digestive  tract,  17,  18,  19 

water  in,  21 
Disinfectants,  304-305 
Donkey,  101-102 

burro,  102 
Dorset  sheep,  131,  141-143 
Draft  horses,  judging,  206-221 
Drying  forage,  26 
Dual  purpose  cattle,  106,  127-130 
Devon,  106,  129-130 


INDEX 


343 


Dual  purpose  cattle  —  Continued 

Milking  Shorthorn,  io6 

Red  Polled,  io6,  127-129 
Ducks,  323-328 

care  of  ducklings,  325-326 

care  of  eggs,  324 

care  of  layers,  327-328 

drinking  water,  324 

incubator,  324-325 

Indian  Runners,  326-327 

quick  growth  of,  323 
Duodenum,  17 
Duroc  Jersey  swine,  153-154 
Dutch  Belted  cattle,  125-126 

Egyptian  Geese,  328 

Embden  geese,  328 

Emmer,  46 

Energy,  18,  19 
fat  for,  21 

English  Coach  horse,  81 

Ensiling,  29 

Enzyme,  18,  20 

Erepsin,  18 

Ether  extract,  23 

Exercises,  21,  31,  50,  78,  104-105,  130, 
151,  163-164,  186,  201,  230,  235, 
242-243,  250,  258,  264,  273,  280, 
292,  305-306,  319,  332 

Farm  poultry  (see  Poultry) 
Fat,  as  nutrient,  23 

in  feeding  stuffs,  22 
Fats,  II,  14,  20-21 
Fattening,  66 

feeding  for,  65-66 
Fatty  tissue,  21 
Feed, 'and  milk  production,  67-68 

crushing,  26 

grinding,  26 

ground,  30 
Feeding,  amount,  27 

and  digestibility,  27 

for  fattening,  65-66 

for  growth,  65-66 

for  maintenance,  63 

for  milk  production,  67 

for  work  production,  68 

frequency,  27 
Feeding  standards,  70 
Feeding  stuffs,  46 

alfalfa,  38-39 

alsike  clover,  40 


Feeding  stuffs  —  Continued 
analysis  of,  22-24 
barley,  45-46,  53-54 
beans,  41 
beet  pulp,  55-56 
Bermuda  grass,  37 
blood  meal,  60 
bran,  51 

brome  grass,  36-37 
buckwheat  middUngs,  52 
buttermilk,  61 
by-products,  32,  51-62 
carbohydrates  in,  19 
cereals  as  grasses,  37 
charcoal,  70 
classes,  32-50 
concentrates,  32,  42 
condimental  stock  foods,  62 
cooking,  31 
corn,  33-34,  43-44 
com  bran,  54 
corn  silage,  48-50 
cottonseed  meal,  57 
cowpeas,  41 
crimson  clover,  40 
curing,  28 
drying,  28 

for  young  animals,  69-70 
germ  meal,  54 
gluten  feed,  55 
gluten  meal,  55 
grasses,  32-33 
hominy  feeds,  54 
how  used,  63-78 
Kentucky  blue  grass,  34 
legumes,  37 
Unseed  meal,  58-59 
mammoth  red  clover,  39-40 
marsh  grass,  36 
meat  meal,  60 
medium  red  clover,  39 
molasses  feeds,  56 
oat  hulls,  53 
oats,  44-45 
orchard  grass,  35 
peanuts,  41 
peas,  41 

preparation,  22-31 
preservation,  27-29 
proper  mixture,  71-72 
protein  in,  13 
red  dog,  52 


344 


INDEX 


Feeding  stuflfs  —  Continued 

redtop,  36 

rice  bran,  53 

root  crops,  46-48 

roots,  32 

roughages,  32 

rye,  46 

salt,  70 

screenings,  53 

skim  milk,  61 

smaller  grasses,  34 

soaking,  31 

sorghums,  34 

starch  feeds,  55 

straws,  42 

sugar  feeds,  55 

sweet  clover,  40-41 

tankage,  59-60 

timothy,  35 

tubers,  32 

value  of,  24 

vetch,  42 

wet  feeds,  31 

wheat,  44 

wheat  middlings,  52 

whey,  61 

white  clover,  40 
Fermentation,  bacterial,  20 
Fiber,  crude,  19,  23 
Fibers,  muscular,  18 
Figuring  rations,  73-78 
Fluids,  digestive,  20 
Fodders,  digestibility,  25 
Food,  absorption  of,  17,  18 

assimilation  of,  17 

in  the  body,  16-17 
Food  producer,  dairy  cow  as,  67 
Forage,  corn  as,  28 

value  of  drying,  26 
French-Canadian  cattle,  106,  126-127 
French  Coach  horse,  91-92 

Galloway  cattle,  106-114 
Game  chickens,  318 
Gases,  toxic  properties,  20 
Gastric  juice,  18 
Geese,  African,  328 

breeding  stock,  329-330 

Chinese,  328 

Egyptian,  328 

Embden,  328 

fattening,  331 


Geese  —  Contintied 

feeding  goslings,  330 

incubation,  330 

ranges,  328 

Toulouse,  328 

Wild,  328 
Germ  meal,  54 
German  Coach  horse,  92-93 
Glands  of  mouth,  19 
Glucose,  13,  19 
Gluten  food,  55 
Glycogen,  13 
Goats,  149-150 
Grass,  32 

Bermuda,  33,  37 

brome,  33,  36-37 

cereal  grains,  S3 

cereals  as,  37 

corn,  33 

crude  fiber  in,  14 

ItaUan  rye,  33 

Johnson,  33 

Kentucky  blue,  33,  34 

marsh,  36 

orchard,  33,  35 

prairie,  36 

quack,  33 

redtop,  36 

roughage,  32 

smaller  varieties,  34 

timothy,  33,  35 
Ground  feed,  30 
Growth,  feeding  for,  65-66 
Guernsey  cattle,  106,  120-122 
Guernsey  Cattle  Club,  270 
Gullet,  17,  19 

of  ox,  19-20 

of  sheep,  20 

Hackney  horse,  89-90 

Hackney  pony,  81,  99,  100 

Haecker's  feeding  standard,  333-337 

Hair,  12,  18 

Hampshire  sheep,  131,  137-138 

Hampshire  swine,  161- 163 

Hay,  alfalfa,  38 

making,  28-29 

nitrogen  free  extract  in,  24 

roughage,  24 

timothy,  23-24,  35 
Heat,  fat  for,  21 

for  the  body,  18 


INDEX 


345 


Hereford  cattle,  106,  iio-iii 
Highland  pony,  81 
Hogs,  alfalfa  for,  39 

barley  for,  46 

charcoal  for,  70 

corn  for,  30 

linseed  meal,  59 

poisoned  by  cotton  seed,  58 

wheat  middlings,  52 
Holstein  Association,  270 
Holstein  cattle,  106 
Holstein-Friesian  cattle,  11 7-1 18 
Home  projects,  21,  31,  50,  62,  78,  105, 130, 

151,  164,  186,  201,  230,  235,  243,  250, 

258,  264,  273,  280,  292,  306,  319,  332 
Hominy  feeds,  54 
Honeycomb,  20 
Hoofs,  12,  18 
Horns,  12,  18 
Horses,  age,  206-208 

American  Saddle,  81 

American  Trotter,  81,  94-96 

Arabian,  81,  96-97 

Belgian,  79,  84-85 

blemishes,  202-206 

bran  for,  52 

breeds,  79-105 

brood  mare,  233-234 

care  of,  231-235 

carriage,  81 

classification,  79 

Cleveland  Bay,  81,  93-94 

Clydesdale,  79,  85-86 

Coach,  81,  89-98 

colic,  235 

cottonseed  meal  for,  57 

cutting  hay  for,  29 

donkey,  101-102 

draft,  79 

English  Coach,  81 

feeding  standards  for,  72 

food  for  work,  231-232 

French  Coach,  81,  91-92 

German  Coach,  81,  92-93 

grinding  food  for,  26 

grooming,  231 

Hackney,  81,  89-90 

judging,  202-230 

management  of,  231-235 

Morgan,  96 

oats  for,  45 

Orloff  I'rotter,  81 


Horses  —  Continued 

Percheron,  79,  81-83 

ponies,  81,  98-100 

race,  95-96 

rations,  232-233 

roadster,  81 

Saddle,  226 

Shire,  79,  87-88 

silage  for,  50 

stables,  231 

stallion  enrollment,  273 

straw  as  food  for,  42 

Suffolk,  88 

Suffolk  Punch,  79 

teeth  of,  206-208 

Thoroughbred,  81,  97-98 

timothy  for,  35 

unsoundness,  202-206 

work,  30 

Yorkshire,  81 
Hoven,  20 
Hybrids,  266 
Hydrogen,  11,  13 

in  fats,  14 

Ileum,  17 

Improvement,     Uve     stock     {see     Live 

stock) 
Inbreeding,  266 
Incubation,  age  of  eggs,  283 

artificial,  281-282 

brooder,  286 

brooding  chicks,  285-286 

chilling  eggs,  282 

cleanhness,  283 

feeding  brooder  chicks,  286-289 

hatching,  284-285 

moisture,  effect  of,  284 

sanitary  precautions,  286 

selecting  eggs,  282 

temperature,  283 

thermometer,  284 
Indian  pony,  81,  99 
Indian  Runner  ducks,  326-327 
Insalivation,  17 
Intestine,  carbohydrates  in,  19 

enzyme  in,  18 

erepsin  in,  18 

soaps  in,  21 

trypsin  in,  18 
Iron,  II,  21 
Italian  rye  grass,  33 


346 


INDEX 


Jejunum,  17 

Jersey  Association,  270 

Jersey  cattle,  106,  11 8-1 20 

Johnson  grass,  33 

Judging  bacon  hogs,  191-192 

Judging  beef  cattle,  back,  174 

body,  chest,  173 

breeder's  demands,  166-168 

butcher's  demands,  166 

cheap  cuts,  165 

crops,  173 

feeder's  demands,  166 

finish,  169-170 

flank,  174 

forequarters,  1 71-172 

form  of  animal,  168 

head  and  neck,  171 

high-priced  cuts,  165 

hindquarters,  174-175 

loin,  174 

quality,  168-169 

ribs,  174 

score  card,  175-176 

style  and  temperament,  1 70-1 71 

waste  material,  165-166 
Judging  breeding  horses,  229-230 
Judging  breeding  swine,  192-193 
Judging  dairy  cattle,  body,  1 81-182 

determining  type,  177-179 

forequarters,  181 

form  of  cow,  179 

head  and  neck,  181 

hindquarters,  182-183 

mammary  veins,  183-184 

quality,  180 

score  cards,  184-186 

temperament,  180-181 
Judging  draft  horses,  action,  2 10-2 11 

age,  206-208 

arm,  213 

ears,  212 

back,  217 

cannons,  214 

chest,  216 

croup,  217-218 

eyes,  212 

feet,  215-216 

fetlocks,  214 

forearm,  213 

forehead,  212 

form,  209-210 

gaskins,  219 


Judging  draft-horses  —  Continued 

head,  212 

height,  208-209 

hind  legs,  220 

hips,  217 

hocks,  219-220 

knees,  213-214 

loins,  217 

lower  jaw,  213 

muzzle,  213 

neck,  213 

pasterns,  214-215 

quaHty,  210 

quarters,  218 

ribs,  216-217 

score  card,  221 

shoulders,  213 

stifles,  218 

temperament,  21 1-2 12 

thighs,  218 

underUne,  217 

weight,  209 
Judging  horses,  blemishes,  202-206 

curb,  205 

fistula  of  withers,  204 

heaves,  204 

poll  evil,  203-204 

ringbone,  204 

roaring,  204 

sidebones,  204 

spavin,  205 

stringhalt,  205-206 

thoroughpin,  204-205 

unsoundness,  202—206 
Judging  lard  hogs,  back,  189-190 

belly  and  flank,  190 

breast  and  chest,  189 

disposition,  188 

hams,  190-191 

head  and  neck,  188 

hip  and  rump,  190 

legs,  191 

loin,  190 

quality,  188 

shoulder,  189 

sides,  189 
Judging  light  horses,  action,  222-223 

arm,  223 

body,  224 

cannon  bones,  223-224 

feet,  224 

fetlocks,  223-224 


INDEX 


347 


Judging  light  horses  — ■  Continued 

form,  222 

head  and  neck,  223 

height,  222 

hindquarters,  224-225 

knees,  223 

pasterns,  224 

quality,  222 

score  card,  228 

shoulders,  223 

temperament,  223 

weight,  222 
Judging  mules,  229 
Judging  ponies,  227-229 
Judging  sheep,  body,  196 

chest,  195-196 

disposition,  195 

form,  194-195 

form  for  mutton,  194 

head  and  neck,  195 

legs,  196 

quality,  195 

score  card,  200 

wool,  196-199 
Judging  swine,  187-193 

Kafir,  34 

Kent  sheep,  149 

Kentucky  blue  grass,  33,  34 

Kerry  cattle,  106,  127 

Kidney  beans,  vitamine  in,  16 

Kidneys,  19 

Kindness,  value,  27 

Lambs,  252 

oats  for,  45 
Langshan  chickens,  317 
Lard  hog,  260-261 
Large  Yorkshire  swine,  159-160 
Lean-meat  tissues,  12 
Leghorn  chickens,  274,  313 
Legumes,  37 

roughage,  32 
Lehmann,  Dr.  C,  71 
Leicester  sheep,  144-146 
Ligaments,  18 
Lime  in  tiie  skeleton,  21 
Lincoln  sheep,  143-144 
Linseed  meal,  58-59 

protein,  13 
Live  stock  improvement,  atavism,  265- 

266 


Live  stock  improvement  —  Continued 

crossbreeding,  266 

heredity,  265 

hybrids,  266 

inbreeding,  266 

line  breeding,  266 

mutants,  266 

selection,  265 

sire,  pure-bred,  267 

stallion  enrollment,  273 

subsidizing  sires,  272 

Test  Associations,  271 
Lungs,  19 

Magnesium,  11 
in  blood,  21 
in  bones,  21 
in  plants,  15 
Maintenance,  factors,  64 
feeding  for,  63 
roughages  for,  63-64 
size,  relation  to,  64 
Malay  chickens,  318 
Maltose,  19 
Many  plies,  20 
Mare,  brood,  233-234 
Margarines,  vitamine  in,  16 
Marsh  grass,  36 
Mastication,  17 
Meal,  germ,  54 

gluten,  55 
Meat  meal,  59-60 
Middlings,  protein  in,  13 
Milch  goats,  150 
Milk,  commercial  value,  61 
fat  content,  70 
feeding  for  production,  67 
production,  care  essential,  67-68 
skim  milk,  61 
vitamine  in,  16 
Milk  fever,  250 
Milking  Shorthorn  cattle,  106 
Milk  sugar,  61 
Mineral  matter,  in  bran,  51 
in  feeding  stuffs,  23 
in  oats,  45 
water  and,  21 
Mineral  substances,  11,  15 
Minorca  chickens,  313 
Mixture  of  feeds,  71-72 
Molasses  feeds.  56 
Morgan  horse,  96 


348 


INDEX 


Mouth,  19 
Mules,  102-104 
judging,  229 
Muscular  fibers,  18 
Mustang  pony,  81,  99 
Mutants,  266 

Nai's,  12 
Nerve  cells,  12 
Nerves,  18 
Nitrogen,  11,  12,  13 

in  protein,  23 
Nitrogen  free  extract,  22,  23 

digestibility,  25 
Nutrient,  digestible,  22,  24 

fat  as,  23 
Nutritive  ratio,  68-69 

Oat  hulls,  53 
Oats,  37,  44-45 

carbohydrates  in,  14 

value  of  crushing,  26 

vitamines  in,  16 
Omasum,  20 
Orchard  grass,  33,  35 
Organism,  parts,  11 
Orloff  Trotter,  81 
Ox,  digestion,  20,  27 

stomachs  of,  19-20 
Oxford  sheep,  131 
Oxygen,  13 

in  fats,  14 

in  red  corpuscles,  21 

Pancreas,  18,  20 
Pancreatic  juice,  18 
Paunch,  19-20 
Peanuts,  41-42 

legume,  37 

protein  in,  13 

vitamine  in,  16 
Peas,  41 

mineral  in,  15 

protein  in,  13 
Pepsin,  18 

Percheron  draft  horse,  79,  81-83 
Phosphorus,  11 

in  plants,  11,  15 

in  proteins,  21 

in  the  skeleton,  21 
Pigs,  buttermilk  for,  61 

skim  milk  for,  61 
Plant,  maturity,  25 


Plymouth  Rock  chickens,  274 

Pneumonia,  253 

Poland  China  swine,  152-153 

Polled  Durham  cattle,  106,  109-110 

Polled  Hereford  cattle,  106,  11 2-1 13 

Polo  pony,  81 

Ponies,  81,  98-100 

American,  99 

broncho,  81,  99 

Hackney,  81 

Highland,  81 

Indian,  81,  99 

judging,  227-229 

mustang,  81,  99 

Polo,  81 

Shetland,  81,  99-100 

Welsh,  81,  99,  100 
Potassium,  11 

in  plants,  15 
Potatoes,  starch  in,  14 
Poultry,  274-332 

American  class,  311 

artificial  incubation,  281-282 

Asiatic  class,  311 

breed  requirements,  311 

breeds  of  chickens,  307-319 

brooder  house,  289-290 

brooding,  281-292 

care  of  cliicks,  279 

care  of  flock,  275 

classes,  311 

cooking  food,  296-297 

diseases,  302-303 

disinfectants,  304-305 

ducks,  323-331 

egg  breeds,  307 

EngUsh  class,  311 

Exhibition  class,  311 

farm  flock,  274-275 

feeding,  293-296 

French  class,  311 

geese,  328-331 

general  purpose  breeds,  308-309 

grinding  food,  296-297 

hens,  274-319 

houses,  275-277 

incubation,  281-292 

judging,  309-311 

laying  hens,  293-306 

lice  and  mites,  303-304 

meat  breeds,  308 

Mediterranean  class,  311-313 


INDEX 


349 


Poultry  —  Continued 

Oriental  class,  3 1 1 

pure-bred  fowls,  274-275 

raising  feed,  300-301 

renewing  flock,  278-279 

rules  for  judging,  311 

score  card,  309-311 

sitting  hens,  279 

small  flock,  290-291 

testing  thermometer,  284 

turkeys,  320-323 

types  of  chickens,  307-319 
Prairie  grass,  36 
Protein,  analyzing  for,  12 

effect  of  digestive  fluids,  20-2 1 

for  repair  of  waste,  19 

in  bran,  51 

in  feed  stuffs,  22 

in  stomach,  18 

in  oats,  45 

phosphorus  in,  15,  21 

Race  horse,  9S-q6 
Racks,  feeding,  254 
Rambouillet  sheep,  131,  i33-i34 
Ration,  balanced,  63 

figuring,  71,  73-78 

trial,  73-77 

varying,  169 
Red  dog,  52 

Red  Polled  cattle,  106,  128-129 
Redtop,  36 
Rennin,  18 

Resins  in  roughage,  23 
Reticulum,  20 

Rhode  Island  Red  chickens,  274 
Rice,  bran,  53 

carbohydrates  in,  14 

vitamine  in,  16 
Roadster  horse,  American  Saddle,  81 

American  Trotter,  81 

Arabian,  81 

judging,  225-227 

Orloff  Trotter,  81 

Thoroughbred,  81 
Romnev  Marsh  sheep,  149 
Root  crops,  32,  46-48 

commonly  used,  47-48 

similar  to  grass,  47 

water  in,  47 
Roughage,  23 

alfalfa,  38 


Roughage  —  Continued 

corn,  33 

defined,  32 

digestibility,  25 

ether  extract  of,  23 

for  maintenance,  63-64 

for  ruminants,  70 

grasses,  32 

legumes,  32 

silage,  32 

stover,  32 

straw,  32 
Rumen,  20 

Ruminants,  roughage  for,  7c 
Ruminating  animals,  17 

experiments  with,  24-25 
Rumination,  17 
Rye,  37.  46 

carbohydrates  in,  14 

Saddle  horse,  gaits,  226-227 

judging,  225-227 
Saliva,  19 
Salt,  70,  248,  254 
Sanfoin,  legume,  37 
Score  card,  beef  cattle,  176 
chickens,  309-310 
dairy  cattle,  185 
draft  horses,  221 
light  horses,  228 
sheep,  200 
swine  193 
Screenings,  53 
Secretions  of  stomach,  18 
Seeds,  concentrates,  42 
Seradella,  legume,  37 
Serum,  sodium  in,  21 
Sheep,  alfalfa  for,  39 

American  Merino,  131-132 

Black  Face  Highland,  131,  i47-i49 

breeds,  131-151 

care,  251-258 

Cheviot,  131,  140-141 

classification,  131 

cost,  252-253 

Cotswold,  131,  146-147 

cottonseed  meal  for,  57 

Delaine,  132-133 

Delaine  Merino,  131 

digestion,  20,  24-25,  27 

dipping  tank,  257 

docking,  256-257 


350 


INDEX 


Sheep  —  Continued 

Dorset,  131,  141-143 

economy  in  raising,  251 

exercise,  254 

fattening,  255-256 

feeding,  251-252,  254,  255-256 

feeding  racks,  254 

feeding  standards,  72 

feeds  for,  255 

fine-wool  breeds,  131-134 

grain  for,  30 

Hampshire,  131,  137-138 

judging,  194-200 

Kent,  131,  149 

lambs,  252 

Leicester,  131,  144-146 

Lincoln,  143-144 

linseed  meal  for,  59 

long- wool  breeds,  131,  143-149 

management  of,  251-258 

medium-wool  breeds,  131,  134-143 

oats  for,  45 

Oxford,  131,  136-137 

paunch  of,  20 

pneumonia  in,  253 

Rambouillet,  131,  133-134 

Romney  Marsh,  131,  149 

salt  for,  254 

shepherd,  253 

Shropshire,  131,  134-136 

Southdown,  131,  138-140 

stabling,  253 

stomachs  of,  20 

Suffolk,  131,  141 

ticks,  257 

Tunis,  131,  143 
Shepherd,  253 
Shetland  cattle,  106 

ponies,  81 
Shire  draft  horse,  79,  87-88 
Shorthorn  cattle,  106-109 
Shropshire  sheep,  131,  134-136 
Silage,  29 

alfalfa,  38 

corn,  48-50 

feeding,  50 

peas,  41 

roughage,  32 
Silicon,  II 
Silo,  29 

calculating  capacity,  49-50 

filling,  48-49 


Sire,  pure-bred,  267 
Skeleton,  21 
Skim  milk,  61 
Skin,  18,  19 
Soaps,  20-21 
Sodium,  II 

in  plants,  15 

in  serum,  21 
Sorghums,  34 

Southdown  sheep,  131,  138-140 
Soy  beans,  vitamines  in,  16 
Spanish  chickens,  313 
Stable,  231,  245,  253 
Stallion  enrollment,  273 
Standard  bred  horse,  96 
Standards,  feeding,  70-73 

VVoltf,  71 

Wolfif-Lehmann,  71-73 
Starch,  13,  14,  19 

feeds,  55 

nitrogen  free  extract  in,  23 
Steapsin,  20 
Steers,  alfalfa  for,  38 

bran  for,  51 

corn  for,  43 

cottonseed  meal  for,  57 
Stock  foods,  condimental,  62 
Stomach,  17,  18,  19,  20 
Stover,  corn,  29 

roughage,  32 
Straw,  cutting,  29 

roughage,  32 
Straws,  42 
Suffolk  horse,  88-89 
Suffolk  Punch  draft  horse,  79 
Suffolk  sheep,  131,  141 
Sugar,  in  beets,  14 

nitrogen  free  extract  in,  23 
Sugar  beet  molasses,  56 
Sugar  beets,  14 
Sugar  cane,  55 
Sugar  feeds,  55 
Sugars,  13 
Sulphur,  II 
Sumatra  chickens,  318 
Swine,  bacon  breeds,  159-163 

Berkshire,  155-156 

breeds  of,  152-164 

brood  sow,  260 

care  of,  259-264 

Cheshire,  159 

Chester  White,  157-158 


INDEX 


351 


Swine  —  Continued 
Duroc  Jersey,  153-154 
Essex,  158 
feeding,  261-262 
feeding  standards,  72 
feeding  young  pigs,  260 
grinding  food  for,  26 
Hampshire,  161-163 
hog  cholera,  262-264 
housing,  259 
judging,  187-193 
lard  breeds,  152-158 
lard  hog,  260-261 
Large  Yorkshire,  159-160 
minor  breeds,  158-159 
pasture,  262 
Poland  China,  152-153 
Small  Yorkshire,  158 
Suffolk,  158 
Tamworth,  1 60-161 
Victoria,  158 
with  steers,  240-241 

Tamworth  swine,  1 60-161 
Tankage,  59-60 
Test  Associations,  271 
Thermometer,  284 
Thoroughbred  horse,  81,  97-98 
Timothy,  35 

for  horses,  35 

grass,  33 

hay,  23-24 

roughage,  24 
Tissue,  fatty,  21 
Tissues,  18 

water  in,  21 
Toulouse  geese,  328 
Toxic  properties  of  gases,  20 
Trypsin,  18 


Tuberculin  test,  249 

Tuberculosis,  in  cattle,  248-249 

Tubers,  32 

Tunis  sheep,  131,  143 

Turkeys,  brooding  young,  322-323 

hens,  321 

incubation  of  eggs,  322 

nesting,  322 

rangers  preferable,  321-322 
Type  defined,  79 

Vetch,  42 

a  legume,  37 
Vitamines,  16 

Waste  material,  19 
Water,  11,  15-16 

in  feed  stuffs,  22 

in  tissues,  21 

mineral  matter  and,  21 
Waxes  in  roughage,  23 
Welsh  pony,  81,  99,  100 
West  Highland  cattle,  106 
Wheat,  44 

vitamines  in,  16 
Wheat  bran,  protein  in,  13 
Wheat  middlings,  52 
Whey,  61 
Wild  geese,  328 
Wolff,  Emil  von,  71 
Wolff-Lehmann  standards,  71-73 
Wolff  standards,  71 
Work,  and  digestion,  27 

animals'  rations,  68 
Work  horse,  30 

food  for,  231-232 

Yorkshire  Coach  horse,  81 
Young  animal,  needs  of,  69-70 


